Lone Star virus | |
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Virus classification | |
Group: | Group V ((−)ssRNA) |
Order: | Bunyavirales |
Family: | Phenuiviridae |
Genus: | Phlebovirus |
Species: | Lone Star virus |
The Lone Star virus is a highly divergent Bunyavirus, which is carried and transmitted by the Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum . This is the same vector that transmits the SFTS virus, and the newly discovered Bhanja and Heartland virus. [1]
Amblyomma americanum, also known as the lone star tick, the northeastern water tick, or the turkey tick, is a type of tick indigenous to much of the eastern United States and Mexico, that bites painlessly and commonly goes unnoticed, remaining attached to its host for as long as seven days until it is fully engorged with blood. It is a member of the phylum Arthropoda, class Arachnida. The adult lone star tick is sexually dimorphic, named for a silvery-white, star-shaped spot or "lone star" present near the center of the posterior portion of the adult female shield (scutum); adult males conversely have varied white streaks or spots around the margins of their shields.
The Heartland virus (HRTV) is a tick-borne phlebovirus of the Bhanja virus serocomplex discovered in 2009. The Lone Star Tick transmits the virus to people when feeding on blood. As of 2017, only five Midwestern United States have reported 20 human infections, namely Arkansas, Indiana, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Tennessee; symptoms resemble those of two other tick-borne infections ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis. The reservoir host is unknown, but deer, raccoon, coyotes, and moose in 13 different states have antibody titers against the virus.
Lone Star virus shares the same vector as these viruses and has many characteristics of them, it shares less than sixty-one percent of its amino acid identity with them. Though the virus has never been a cause of illness in humans, it has the ability to infect both human and monkey cells, and its effects are seen, in both cell lines, 72 hours after contact. [2]
It was first discovered and studied by the Center for Zoonoses Research, at the University of Illinois, in 1966. The virus was taken from a Lone Star Tick, which had been removed from a woodchuck in the Land Between the Lakes region of Western Kentucky. [3]
Western Kentucky is the western portion of the U.S. state of Kentucky. It generally includes part or all of several more widely recognized regions of the state.
Lone Star virus's genome consist of negative, single-stranded RNA. It is in the Bunyaviridae family of viruses. Its genus is the Phlebovirus and its species name is Lone Star virus. It has been proven to produce titers in human and monkey cells seventy-two hours after inoculation. Although it was discovered in 1967, it has never been genetically characterized.
Phlebovirus is one of four genera of the family Phenuiviridae in the order Bunyavirales. The genus currently comprises 10 species. It derives its name from Phlebotominae, the vectors of member species Sandfly fever Naples phlebovirus, which is ultimately from the Greek phlebos ('vein').
Interest has recently increased in it due to the emergence of STARI, or Southern Tick-borne Rash Illness, an unknown disease which is also associated with Amblyomma americanum. It is the hope of the scientific community that researching Lone Star virus can give clues to the etiology of STARI. They are also curious as to whether LSV virus could be found in patients who have STARI. Finding a link between the two will help them to understand both of these viruses on a greater level. [4]
The viruses size is between 90 and 100 micrometers [3]
There has not been any documented case of Lone Star virus causing illness in a human. It is found to be present in the Lone Star Tick. This tick used to exist mainly in the South-Central United States, however it has increased in both range and abundance over the past twenty years, to now exist along most of the Southern states and the Eastern Coast of the United States. This increase in number will cause more humans to come in contact with Lone Star ticks, and could possible lead to a human being affected by the virus. [5]
The virus is shown to have a cytopathic effect on both human (HeLa) and monkey (vero) cells. As part of the minimal research that has been done, death occurred in mice that were infected with the virus. [6]
No human cases have been found thus far, however evidence points to the fact that it does have pathogenic effects in humans. This means this disease could likely be something that affects humans in the future, or has had an effect, but has not been documented, or traced back to this source. [7]
it has a Biosafety level of 2. [8]
After the virus was isolated from the A. americanum nymph, it was inoculated into many test animals including: newborn and full-grown mice, woodchucks, raccoons, as well as chicken and duck eggs. The virus was most pathogenic to the newborn mice, causing death in many of them. In the full grown mice, their reaction to the virus was determined by how the virus was inoculated in them. Mice who received the virus intraperitoneally, showed no reaction or symptoms to the virus. However about seventy-five percent of mice who were inoculated in their cerebrum showed sickness or even death, due to the virus. One out of the six woodchucks studied showed signs of being infected while the others had no response to the inoculation. Only raccoons developed antibodies against the virus, and did not show any other signs of being exposed. The chicken and duck eggs were not affected in any way. [3]
Poliovirus, the causative agent of polio, is a member virus of Enterovirus C, in the family of Picornaviridae.
Tick-borne diseases, which afflict humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. Tick-borne illnesses are caused by infection with a variety of pathogens, including rickettsia and other types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Because individual ticks can harbor more than one disease-causing agent, patients can be infected with more than one pathogen at the same time, compounding the difficulty in diagnosis and treatment. As of 2016, 16 tick-borne diseases of humans are known.
Bunyavirales is an order of negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses. It is the only order in the class Ellioviricetes. It was formerly known as Bunyaviridae family of viruses. The name Bunyavirales derives from Bunyamwera, where the original type species Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus was first discovered. Ellioviricetes is named in honor of late virologist Richard M. Elliott for his early work on bunyaviruses.
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic fever endemic to South India. The disease is caused by a virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae, which also includes yellow fever and dengue fever.
Thogotovirus is a genus of enveloped RNA viruses, one of seven genera in the virus family Orthomyxoviridae. Their single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome has six or seven segments. Thogotoviruses are distinguished from most other orthomyxoviruses by being arboviruses – viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, in this case usually ticks. Thogotoviruses can replicate in both tick cells and vertebrate cells; one subtype has also been isolated from mosquitoes. A consequence of being transmitted by blood-sucking vectors is that the virus must spread systemically in the vertebrate host – unlike influenza viruses, which are transmitted by respiratory droplets and are usually confined to the respiratory system.
Erythema migrans refers to a rash often seen in the early stage of Lyme disease, and can also be caused by southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI). It can appear anywhere from one day to one month after a tick bite. This rash does not represent an allergic reaction to the bite, but rather an actual skin infection of one of the Lyme bacteria species from the genus Borrelia.
Dermacentor variabilis, also known as the American dog tick or wood tick, is a species of tick that is known to carry bacteria responsible for several diseases in humans, including Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tularemia. It is one of the most well-known hard ticks. Diseases are spread when it sucks blood from the host, which could take several days for the host to experience some symptoms.
In the diagnostic laboratory virus infections can be confirmed by a multitude of methods. Diagnostic virology has changed rapidly due to the advent of molecular techniques and increased clinical sensitivity of serological assays.
Southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI) or Masters' disease is an emerging infectious disease related to Lyme disease that occurs in southeastern and south-central United States. It is spread by tick bites, but the organism that causes the infection is unknown.
Ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligate intracellular gram-negative species of rickettsiales bacteria. It is a zoonotic pathogen transmitted to humans by the lone star tick. It is the causative agent of human monocytic ehrlichiosis.
Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis (HME) is a form of ehrlichiosis associated with Ehrlichia chaffeensis. This bacterium is an obligate intracellular pathogen affecting monocytes and macrophages.
Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection is an infectious disease caused by an intracellular bacteria, Ehrlichia ewingii. The infection is transmitted to humans by the tick, Amblyomma americanum. This tick can also transmit Ehrlichia chaffeensis, the bacteria that causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME).
African tick bite fever (ATBF) is a bacterial infection spread by the bite of a tick. Symptoms may include fever, headache, muscles pains, and a rash. At the site of the bite there is typically a red skin sore with a dark center. Onset usually occur 4–10 days after the bite. Complications are rare, however may include joint inflammation. Some people do not develop symptoms.
The transmission of hepadnaviruses between their natural hosts, humans, non-human primates, and birds, including intra-species host transmission and cross-species transmission, is a topic of study in virology.
Huaiyangshan banyangvirus, formerly SFTS virus, is a tick-borne Banyangvirus in the order Bunyavirales. It appears to be more closely related to the Uukuniemi virus serogroup than to the Sandfly fever group. It is a member of the Bhanja virus serocomplex.
Royal Farm virus, previously known as Karshi virus, was not viewed as pathogenic or harmful to humans. Although infected people suffer with fever-like symptoms. Some people in Uzbekistan have reported with severe disease such as encephalitis and other large outbreaks of fever illness connected infection with Karshi virus.
Tibovirus Is term is often used to describe viruses that are transmitted by tick vectors. The word tibovirus is an acronym. This falls within the superorder arthropod thus tibovirus is classified under Arthropod Borne virus (Arborvirus). For a person to acquire infection the tick must bite and feed for a sufficient period of time. The tiboviruses that affect humans are limited to within 3 families: Flaviviridae, Reoviridae, and Bunyaviridae.
The Nairobi sheep disease orthonairovirus (NSDV), also known as Ganjam virus is a species in the genus Orthonairovirus belonging to the Nairobi sheep disease serogroup. NSDV's known hosts belong to the hard tick family Ixodidae, including Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and Amblyomma variegatum, and afflict sheep and goats naturally.