Mueller's pearlside

Last updated

Mueller's pearlside
Maurolicus muelleri.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Stomiiformes
Family: Sternoptychidae
Genus: Maurolicus
Species:
M. muelleri
Binomial name
Maurolicus muelleri
(J. F. Gmelin, 1789)

Maurolicus muelleri, commonly referred to as Mueller's pearlside,Mueller's bristle-mouth fish (not to be confused with the Gonostomatidae), or the silvery lightfish (not to be confused with the Phosichthyidae), is a marine hatchetfish in the genus Maurolicus , found in deep tropical, subtropical and temperate waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, from the surface to depths of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). It can grow to a maximum total length of 8 centimetres (3.1 in). [2]

Contents

Distribution and habitat

Maurolicus muelleri is found across the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans from subpolar waters to the equator, as well as in the Mediterranean, however they are absent in the Indian Ocean. [2] M. muelleri is most abundant around bathymetric features such as seamounts and continental shelf breaks, and is scarce in the open ocean. This species is predominantly found at depths of around 150 to 250 metres (490 to 820 ft) during the day, but can be found as shallow as 50 metres (160 ft) during the nighttime. [2] They can be found in depths of at least 1,527 metres (5,010 ft) at maximum. [2] It lives in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters in the deep sea. [2]

Description

Ventral view of M. muelleri, showing the photophores used for counterillumination. Maurolicus muelleri ventral.jpg
Ventral view of M. muelleri, showing the photophores used for counterillumination.
Fresh-caught specimen of Maurolicus muelleri TCMmcrop.jpg
Fresh-caught specimen of Maurolicus muelleri

Maurolicus muelleri has a fusiform body shape with a moderately sized, subvertical mouth. M. muelleri is countershaded to provide camouflage in the open-ocean, with a dark dorsal surface, silvered flanks and clustered photophores on the ventral surface for counterillumination. In fresh-caught specimens, these photophores are coloured a light pink/purple. They have 9 to 12 dorsal fin rays, 17–19 pectoral fin rays, 7 pelvic fin rays and 22 to 28 anal fin rays. [3] They can grow up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) at maximum length, but usually grows up to 4 centimetres (1.6 in). [2]

Photophores

Photophores are glandular organs that, in M. muelleri, are made up of several parts. The photogenic chamber, made up of small, spherical light-producing cells, is split into a subspherical tank and conic projector, embedded inside a reflector made of guanine crystals. Ventral to the photogenic chamber is a cellular lens that is itself covered on the ventral surface by a gelatinous dioptric layer. [4]

Eyes

Maurolicus muelleri has large eyes with a retina uniquely adapted to the animal's mesopelagic habitat. M. muelleri inhabits surface waters only during twilight hours, requiring acute mesopic vision which in most vertebrates is achieved through combining dim-light rod cells and bright-light cone cells. Fish in the genus Maurolicus have developed a unique photoreceptor where a cone opsin and phototransduction cascade is found in cells transmuted into a rod-like morphology. These rod-like cone receptors are tuned to the blue-shifted mesopic light conditions dominant in M. muelleri's habitat and are likely a more efficient method of mesopic vision than would be feasible with two improperly-functioning photoreceptor types. [5]

Ecology

Trophic ecology

Mueller's pearlside is a zooplanktivore, with exact diet composition varying geographically and seasonally. For example, Copepods are the main constituent of their diet in the Sea of Japan [6] and in waters surrounding Korea, [7] with the euphausiid species Euphausia pacifica of secondary importance near Japan. [6] Euphausiids and copepods are the dominant prey items year-round off near the eastern continental slope of Tasmania. [8] In Masfjorden, Norway, copepods are most important in the autumn, [9] while earlier in the year Cladocerans are most important. [10] Amphipods and pteropods have also been reported from stomach contents. [6]

Maurolicus muelleri inhabits a tertiary trophic position [6] and, as such, provides a trophic link between zooplankton and larger predators. A wide range of fish species prey on M. muelleri, including commercially-important species such as albacores, skipjack tuna, hake, and blue whiting. [11] [12] [13] [14] They are also predated on by several cephalopods, including the squids Illex coindetii and Todaropsis eblanae [15] and the octopus Enteroctopus magnificus [16] , and marine mammals including common dolphins, sei whales, Bryde's whales, and fin whales. [11] [17] [18] [19]

Parasitology

Due to its trophic position, M. muelleri plays a role as an intermediate or paratenic host to a variety of parasitic taxa, with very few parasites reaching adulthood while infecting the pearlside. For example, in a study that examined 1329 individual Maurolicus muelleri specimens, 3720 parasites were found with only 5 individual adult parasites. [20] Endoparasites recorded from Maurolicus muelleri include the trematodes Derogenes varicose, Brachyphallus crenatus, and Lecithaster confusus, cestodes including Bothriocephalus sp. and Scolex pleuronectis, the nematodes Hysterothylacium aduncum and Anisakis simplex [20] [21] . One of the only species to reach adulthood parasitising M. muelleri is the ectoparasitic copepod Sarcotretes scopeli. [20] A "fungoid mass", tentatively identified as being from the protist genus Ichthyophonus , has been identified in pearlsides caught near Australia. [22]

Behavior

Diel vertical migration

As with many mesopelagic species, Maurolicus muelleri undergoes diel vertical migration (DVM), however this behaviour is more complex and varied in M. muelleri than that descriptor usually entails. The specific nature of this migration can vary seasonally, between years, an across geography, as well as across the ontogeny of individual fishes. [23]

The vertical migration of M. muelleri has been best studied in Masfjorden, where a fifteen-month acoustic survey was undertaken. In Masfjorden, M. muelleri formed distinct scattering layers, with the deepest layer composed of adults and a shallow layer composed of post-larvae. [23] The depth of these scattering layers is thought to be a result of M. muelleri having a "light comfort zone", inhabiting depths where light levels are neither too bright nor too dark. Individual fish may move between scattering layers, indicating that the comfort zones are broader than suggested in the typical isolume hypothesis. [24] Here, M. muelleri displayed consistent, typical DVM patterns (i.e. remaining at depth during the day and ascending to the surface at night) during summer months only, with individuals feeding at dawn and dusk. [23]

Their behaviour, however, varied in the autumn and winter. In years where their Calanus copepod prey, which overwinter at depth, were abundant, adults in the winter delayed their vertical migration until approximately three hours before dawn due potentially to a reduced need to feed at the surface, with some individuals remaining at depth for the entire night, feeding entirely on deep-overwintering prey. Towards the end of the winter, adults underwent interrupted ascents, migrating to depths that were greater than reached during typical DVM as they preyed on deep-wintering prey partway through their seasonal ascent to the surface. Some individuals undertook a reversed DVM during winter, diving to slightly greater depths during daylight hours, to feed on deep-overwintering prey in optimal light conditions. [23] In the Benguela system and in the Gulf of Oman, DVM is known to occur, with fish ascending to within 10m of the surface in response to the first light of dawn before diving into deep waters. [25]

Predator evasion

In latitudes where summer nights are short and bright, such as in the Arctic Circle, M. muelleri may school in shallow waters at night to reduce the threat of predation. [26] Maurolicus muelleri in scattering layers can detect predators at distances of several metres during the day, and respond by diving as far as 50m below their original depths at speeds of 15–20 cm/s. [24] While most individuals reside in scattering layers to reduce predation risk, certain "bold individuals" will make forays into shallower waters above scattering layers, presumably in order to feed in move favourable light levels. It is unknown whether these bold individuals are atypical or whether a change in individual state (e.g. hunger) prompts these forays. [24]

Life History

Spawn timing in Maurolicus muelleri is regionally variable. In the Benguela system, breeding occurs year round, while in Australia spawning occurs in late winter and early spring. [22] [27] In Norway, spawning occurs between March and September, [28] however hatch timing is a strong predictor of recruitment success, with individuals hatching before mid-September experiencing poor conditions for growth. [29] Females mature at lengths of around 35mm, at the end of their first year, and fish below 30mm cannot be sexed. [22] A small fraction of individuals survive into their second year, reaching lengths of up to 50mm in Australia. [22]

Individual females can contain as many as 738 ova, [22] and in enclosed spaces eggs can be extremely abundant, reaching numbers as high as 5.8x10^11 in Fensfjorden. [30] Eggs settle at a depth of around 200m in the Benguela system. [27] The eggs are surrounded by a distinctive hexagonal-patterned membrane. [22]

Importance to Fisheries

At present, M. muelleri is of minor importance to fisheries, with several countries, including Russia, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands attempting to pursue it as a resource after the collapse of other fisheries, with no nation landing more than 50,000 tonnes in a single year. [1] The species continues to be a focus of speculation for future mesopelagic fisheries, [31] however a number of technical hurdles will need to be surmounted in order to make pearlsides a cost-effective fishery target. [32]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep-sea fish</span> Fauna found in deep-sea areas

Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters, that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea. The lanternfish is, by far, the most common deep-sea fish. Other deep-sea fishes include the flashlight fish, cookiecutter shark, bristlemouths, anglerfish, viperfish, and some species of eelpout.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stomiiformes</span> Order of fishes

Stomiiformes is an order of deep-sea ray-finned fishes of very diverse morphology. It includes, for example, dragonfishes, lightfishes, loosejaws, marine hatchetfishes and viperfishes. The order contains 4 families with more than 50 genera and at least 410 species. As usual for deep-sea fishes, there are few common names for species of the order, but the Stomiiformes as a whole are often called dragonfishes and allies or simply stomiiforms.

The mesopelagiczone, also known as the middle pelagic or twilight zone, is the part of the pelagic zone that lies between the photic epipelagic and the aphotic bathypelagic zones. It is defined by light, and begins at the depth where only 1% of incident light reaches and ends where there is no light; the depths of this zone are between approximately 200 to 1,000 meters below the ocean surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sternoptychidae</span> Family of fishes

The marine hatchetfishes or deep-sea hatchetfishes as well as the related bottlelights, pearlsides and constellationfishes are small deep-sea ray-finned fish of the stomiiform family Sternoptychidae. They are not closely related to and should not be confused with the freshwater hatchetfishes, which are teleosts in the characiform family Gasteropelecidae. The Sternoptychidae have 10 genera and about 70 species altogether.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonostomatidae</span> Family of fishes

The Gonostomatidae are a family of mesopelagic marine fish, commonly named bristlemouths, lightfishes, or anglemouths. It is a relatively small family, containing only eight known genera and 32 species. However, bristlemouths make up for their lack of diversity with relative abundance, numbering in the hundreds of trillions to quadrillions. The genus Cyclothone is thought to be one of the most abundant vertebrate genera in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lanternfish</span> Family of ray-finned fishes

Lanternfish are small mesopelagic fish of the large family Myctophidae. One of two families in the order Myctophiformes, the Myctophidae are represented by 246 species in 33 genera, and are found in oceans worldwide. Lanternfishes are aptly named after their conspicuous use of bioluminescence. Their sister family, the Neoscopelidae, are much fewer in number but superficially very similar; at least one neoscopelid shares the common name "lanternfish": the large-scaled lantern fish, Neoscopelus macrolepidotus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific viperfish</span> Species of fish

The Pacific viperfish, is a predatory deep-sea fish found in the North Pacific. It is reported as being either mesopelagic or bathypelagic, with diel vertical migration to shallower waters. The Pacific viperfish is one of the nine different species that belong to the genus Chauliodus, the viperfish. The Pacific viperfish tend to be the largest of the species, typically reaching lengths of up to 1 foot and are considered an example of deep-sea gigantism. The length-weight relationship of the pacific viperfish varies with sex with females tending to be longer and heavier than males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelagic fish</span> Fish in the pelagic zone of ocean waters

Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters—being neither close to the bottom nor near the shore—in contrast with demersal fish that live on or near the bottom, and reef fish that are associated with coral reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viperfish</span> Genus of fishes

A viperfish is any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. Viperfishes are mostly found in the mesopelagic zone and are characterized by long, needle-like teeth and hinged lower jaws. A typical viperfish grows to lengths of 30 cm (12 in). Viperfishes undergo diel vertical migration and are found all around the world in tropical and temperate oceans. Viperfishes are capable of bioluminescence and possess photophores along the ventral side of their body, likely used to camouflage them by blending in with the less than 1% of light that reaches to below 200 meters depth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bluntsnout smooth-head</span> Species of fish

The bluntsnout smooth-head, black slickhead, Cope's bluntsnout smooth-head, or Atlantic gymnast, Xenodermichthys copei, is a slickhead of the genus Xenodermichthys, found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, and the Tasman Sea, at depths of 100 to 2,600 m. This species grows to a length of 31 centimetres (12 in) TL.

<i>Malacosteus niger</i> Species of fish

Malacosteus niger, commonly known as the black dragon fish, is a species of deep-sea fish. Some additional common names for this species include: northern stoplight loosejaw, lightless loosejaw, black loosejaw, and black hinged-head. It belongs to the family Stomiidae, or dragonfishes. It is among the top predators of the open mesopelagic zone. M. niger is a circumglobal species, which means that it inhabits waters ranging from the tropics to the subarctics. Not many studies have been conducted on its feeding habits, but recent research suggests that M. niger primarily feed on calanoid copepods which is a form of zooplankton. Indeed, it appears that M. niger primarily prey on zooplankton despite its apparent morphological adaptations for the consumption of relatively large prey. Another unique adaptation for this species is its ability to produce both red and blue bioluminescence. Most mesopelagic species aren't capable of producing red bioluminescence. This is advantageous because most other species cannot perceive red light, therefore allowing M. niger to camouflage part of itself to its prey and predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sloane's viperfish</span> Species of fish

Sloane's viperfish, Chauliodus sloani, is a predatory mesopelagic dragonfish found in waters across the world. The species was first described by German scientists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider in their 1801 book Systema ichthyologiae: iconibus CX illustratum, volume 1. Female C. sloani reach maturity between 133 and 191 mm, while males likely reach maturity at slightly smaller body lengths. It has two rows of photophores along its ventral side. It is believed that C. sloani can adjust the intensity of bioluminescence of the ventral photophores to camouflage itself from predators that might see its shadow from below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackbelly lanternshark</span> Species of shark

The blackbelly lanternshark or lucifer shark is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found around the world in tropical and temperate seas at depths between 150 and 1,250 meters – the mesopelagic zone. Compared to other mesopelagic fish predators and invertebrates, the blackbelly lanternshark is thought to reside in shallower, more southern waters. E. lucifer can reach up to 47 centimeters in length and consumes mesopelagic cephalopods, fish, and crustaceans. Blackbelly lanternsharks are bioluminescent, using hormone controlled mechanisms to emit light through ventral photogenic organs called photophores and are presumed to be ovoviviparous. The blackbelly lanternshark has been classified as "Not Threatened" within the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diel vertical migration</span> A pattern of daily vertical movement characteristic of many aquatic species

Diel vertical migration (DVM), also known as diurnal vertical migration, is a pattern of movement used by some organisms, such as copepods, living in the ocean and in lakes. The adjective "diel" comes from Latin: diēs, lit. 'day', and refers to a 24-hour period. The migration occurs when organisms move up to the uppermost layer of the water at night and return to the bottom of the daylight zone of the oceans or to the dense, bottom layer of lakes during the day. DVM is important to the functioning of deep-sea food webs and the biologically-driven sequestration of carbon.

<i>Pterygioteuthis giardi</i> Species of squid

Pterygioteuthis giardi is a species of squid in the family Pyroteuthidae. It is known as the roundear enope squid. The specific name honors the French zoologist and marine biologist Alfred Mathieu Giard (1846-1908).

<i>Todaropsis eblanae</i> Species of squid

Todaropsis eblanae, also known as the lesser flying squid, is a species of short finned squid in the monotypic genus Todaropsis of the family Ommastrephidae.

<i>Histioteuthis heteropsis</i> Species of squid

Histioteuthis heteropsis, known as the strawberry squid, is a species of small cock-eyed squid. The scientific nomenclature of these squid stems from their set of differently sized eyes, one being small and blue and the other being large and yellow. It is thought that the large eye is used to see objects against dim light, while the smaller eye is more able to view bioluminescent light sources. The squid's vernacular name arose due to its rich red skin pigmentation and the presence of photophores along its body, making it appear like a strawberry with seeds.

<i>Ornithoteuthis antillarum</i> Species of squid

Ornithoteuthis antillarum, the Atlantic bird squid, is a species of flying squid from the family Ommastrephidae which is found in the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean. This species is an important component of the diet of many species of fish and of cetaceans. It is taken as a bycatch in fisheries but has the potential to be commercially important if appropriate fishing methods can be developed.

Nanomia bijuga, first described by Stefano Delle Chiaje in 1844 and originally named Physsophora bijuga, is a species of mesopelagic siphonophore in the family Agalmatidae As with all members of the siphonophorae order, it is a colonial organism composed of individual zooids. N. bijuga has a fairly broad distribution, and has been observed in the coastal waters off of North America and Europe. The species has been found to occupy both epipelagic and mesopelagic depths. They utilize specialized swimming zooids for both propulsion and escape behaviors. Similar to other siphonophores, Nanomia bijuga employ stinging tentacles for hunting and defense. They primarily feed on small crustaceans, especially krill.

A micronekton is a group of organisms of 2 to 20 cm in size which are able to swim independently of ocean currents. The word 'nekton' is derived from the Greek νήκτον, translit. nekton, meaning "to swim", and was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1890.

References

  1. 1 2 A. Harold; R. Milligan (2019). "Maurolicus muelleri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019. IUCN: e.T198760A21913754. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T198760A21913754.en .
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Maurolicus muelleri". FishBase . March 2006 version.
  3. ↑ Peter James Palmer Whitehead (1986). Fishes of the North-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Paris: Unesco. ISBN   92-3-002215-2. OCLC   13186416.
  4. ↑ Cavallaro, M.; Mammola, C. L.; Verdiglione, R. (June 2004). "Structural and ultrastructural comparison of photophores of two species of deep-sea fishes: Argyropelecus hemigymnus and Maurolicus muelleri: comparison of photophores in two species of fishes". Journal of Fish Biology. 64 (6): 1552–1567. doi:10.1111/j.0022-1112.2004.00410.x.
  5. ↑ de Busserolles, Fanny; Cortesi, Fabio; Helvik, Jon Vidar; Davies, Wayne I. L.; Templin, Rachel M.; Sullivan, Robert K. P.; Michell, Craig T.; Mountford, Jessica K.; Collin, Shaun P.; Irigoien, Xabier; Kaartvedt, Stein; Marshall, Justin (2017-11-03). "Pushing the limits of photoreception in twilight conditions: The rod-like cone retina of the deep-sea pearlsides". Science Advances. 3 (11): eaao4709. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aao4709. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   5677336 . PMID   29134201.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Ikeda, T; Hirakawa, K; Kajihara, N (1994). "Diet composition and prey size of the mesopelagic fish Maurolicus muelleri (Sternoptychidae) in the Japan sea". Bulletin of Plankton Society of Japan. 41.
  7. ↑ Cha, Byung-Yul (1998). "Spawning ecology and feeding habits of Maurolicus muelleri". Korean Journal of Ichthyology. 10 (2): 176–183.
  8. ↑ Young, J. W.; Blaber, S. J. M. (October 1986). "Feeding ecology of three species of midwater fishes associated with the continental slope of eastern Tasmania, Australia". Marine Biology. 93 (1): 147–156. doi:10.1007/bf00428663. ISSN   0025-3162.
  9. ↑ Srisomwong, Jantra (2009). Diel vertical migration and feeding pattern of M. muelleri in Masfjorden in late autumn (Master thesis). The University of Bergen. hdl:1956/21213.
  10. ↑ Rasmussen, O. I.; Giske, J. (1994-11-01). "Life-history parameters and vertical distribution of Maurolicus muelleri in Masfjorden in summer". Marine Biology. 120 (4): 649–664. doi:10.1007/BF00350086. ISSN   1432-1793.
  11. 1 2 Hassani, S; Antoine, L; Ridoux, V (December 1997). "Diets of Albacore,Thunnus alalunga, and Dolphins,Delphinus delphisandStenella coerulaeoalba, Caught in the Northeast AtlanticAlbacore Drift-net Fishery:A Progress Report". Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science. 22: 119–123. doi: 10.2960/j.v22.a10 . ISSN   0250-6408.
  12. ↑ Ankenbrandt, Lisa (1985). "Food habits of bait-caught Skipjack Tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis, from the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean". Fishery Bulletin. 83 (3): 373–393.
  13. ↑ Cartes, Joan E.; Hidalgo, Manuel; Papiol, Vanesa; Massutí, Enric; Moranta, Joan (March 2009). "Changes in the diet and feeding of the hake Merluccius merluccius at the shelf-break of the Balearic Islands: Influence of the mesopelagic-boundary community". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 56 (3): 344–365. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.09.009. ISSN   0967-0637.
  14. ↑ Bjelland, Otte; Monstad, Terje (1997). "Blue whiting in the Norwegian Sea, spring and summer 1995 and 1996". ICES.
  15. ↑ Lordan, C.; Burnell, G. M.; Cross, T. F. (December 1998). "The diet and ecological importance ofIllex coindetiiandTodaropsis eblanae(Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in Irish waters". South African Journal of Marine Science. 20 (1): 153–163. doi:10.2989/025776198784126214. ISSN   0257-7615.
  16. ↑ Villanueva, R. (June 1993). "Diet and mandibular growth ofOctopus magnificus(Cephalopoda)". South African Journal of Marine Science. 13 (1): 121–126. doi: 10.2989/025776193784287239 . ISSN   0257-7615.
  17. ↑ Kawamura, Akito (1973). "Food and feeding of Sei Whales in waters south of 40°N in the North Pacific". Scientific Reports of the Whale Research Institute. 25: 219–236.
  18. ↑ Best, PB (2001). "Distribution and population separation of Bryde's whale Balaenoptera edeni off southern Africa". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 220: 277–289. doi: 10.3354/meps220277 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  19. ↑ Bravo Rebolledo, Elisa L.; IJsseldijk, Lonneke L.; Solé, Liliane; Begeman, Lineke; de Vries, Simon; van den Boom, Louis; Camalich Carpizo, Jaime; Leopold, Mardik F. (2016-12-01). "Unorthodox Sampling of a Fin Whale's (Balaenoptera physalus) Diet Yields Several New Mesopelagic Prey Species". Aquatic Mammals. 42 (4): 417–420. doi:10.1578/am.42.4.2016.417. ISSN   0167-5427.
  20. 1 2 3 Hamre, Lars Are; Karlsbakk, Egil (March 2002). "Metazoan parasites of Maurolicus muelleri (Gmelin) (Sternoptychidae) in Herdlefjorden, western Norway". Sarsia. 87 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1080/003648202753631721. ISSN   0036-4827.
  21. ↑ Klimpel, Sven; Kellermanns, Esra; Palm, Harry W.; Moravec, František (2007-05-30). "Zoogeography of fish parasites of the pearlside (Maurolicus muelleri), with genetic evidence of Anisakis simplex (s.s.) from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge". Marine Biology. 152 (3): 725–732. doi:10.1007/s00227-007-0727-8. ISSN   0025-3162.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Clarke, Thomas A (1982). Distribution, Growth, and Reproduction of the Lightfish Maurolicus muelleri (Sternoptychidae) off South-East Australia (PDF) (Report). CSIRO Marine Laboratories Reports. ISBN   0-643-02764-5. Report 145.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Staby, A; Røstad, A; Kaartvedt, S (2011-11-15). "Long-term acoustical observations of the mesopelagic fish Maurolicus muelleri reveal novel and varied vertical migration patterns". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 441: 241–255. doi: 10.3354/meps09363 . hdl: 10754/555768 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  24. 1 2 3 Christiansen, Svenja; Klevjer, Thor A; Røstad, Anders; Aksnes, Dag L; Kaartvedt, Stein (2021-09-07). Proud, Roland (ed.). "Flexible behaviour in a mesopelagic fish ( Maurolicus muelleri )". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 78 (5): 1623–1635. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsab075 . hdl: 10754/668858 . ISSN   1054-3139.
  25. ↑ Armstrong, M. J.; Prosch, R. M. (June 1991). "Abundance and distribution of the mesopelagic fish Maurolicus muelleri in the southern Benguela system". South African Journal of Marine Science. 10 (1): 13–28. doi:10.2989/02577619109504615. ISSN   0257-7615.
  26. ↑ Kaartvedt, S; Knutsen, T; Holst, JC (1998). "Schooling of the vertically migrating mesopelagic fish Maurolicus muelleri in light summer nights". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 170: 287–290. doi:10.3354/meps170287. hdl: 11250/108326 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  27. 1 2 Prosch, R. M. (June 1991). "Reproductive biology and spawning of the myctophid Lampanyctodes hectoris and the sternoptychid Maurolicus muelleri in the southern Benguela Ecosystem". South African Journal of Marine Science. 10 (1): 241–252. doi: 10.2989/02577619109504635 . ISSN   0257-7615.
  28. ↑ Gjøsæter, Jakob (1981). "Life history and ecology of Maurolicus muelleri (Gonostomatidae) in Norwegian waters". FiskDir. Skr. Ser. HauUnders. 17: 109–131.
  29. ↑ Folkvord, Arild; Gundersen, Geir; Albretsen, Jon; Asplin, Lars; Kaartvedt, Stein; Giske, Jarl (February 2016). Marshall, C. Tara (ed.). "Impact of hatch date on early life growth and survival of Mueller's pearlside ( Maurolicus muelleri ) larvae and life-history consequences". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 73 (2): 163–176. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2015-0040. hdl: 1956/13128 . ISSN   0706-652X.
  30. ↑ Lopes, Plàcida do Carmo (1979). "Eggs and larvae of Maurolicus muelleri (Gonostomatidae) and other fish eggs and larvae from two fjords in western Norway". Sarsia. 64 (3): 199–210. doi:10.1080/00364827.1979.10411382. ISSN   0036-4827.
  31. ↑ Standal, Dag; Grimaldo, Eduardo (2020-09-01). "Institutional nuts and bolts for a mesopelagic fishery in Norway". Marine Policy. 119: 104043. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104043 . hdl: 11250/2675582 . ISSN   0308-597X.
  32. ↑ Eduardo Grimaldo; Leif Grimsmo; Paula Alvarez; Bent Herrmann; Guro Møen Tveit; Rachel Tiller; Rasa Slizyte; Naroa Aldanondo; Trude Guldberg; Bendik Toldnes; Ana Carvajal; Marte Schei; Merethe Selnes (December 2020). "Investigating the potential for a commercial fishery in the Northeast Atlantic utilizing mesopelagic species". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 77 (7–8): 2541–2556. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsaa114 . hdl: 11250/2685454 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.