Mueller's pearlside

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Mueller's pearlside
Maurolicus muelleri.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Stomiiformes
Family: Sternoptychidae
Genus: Maurolicus
Species:
M. muelleri
Binomial name
Maurolicus muelleri
(J. F. Gmelin, 1789)

Maurolicus muelleri, commonly referred to as Mueller's pearlside,Mueller's bristle-mouth fish (not to be confused with the Gonostomatidae), or the silvery lightfish (not to be confused with the Phosichthyidae), is a marine hatchetfish in the genus Maurolicus , found in deep tropical, subtropical and temperate waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, from the surface to depths of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). It can grow to a maximum total length of 8 centimetres (3.1 in). [2]

Contents

Distribution and habitat

Maurolicus muelleri is found across the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans from subpolar waters to the equator, as well as in the Mediterranean, however they are absent in the Indian Ocean. [2] M. muelleri is most abundant around bathymetric features such as seamounts and continental shelf breaks, and is scarce in the open ocean. This species is predominantly found at depths of around 150 to 250 metres (490 to 820 ft) during the day, but can be found as shallow as 50 metres (160 ft) during the nighttime. [2] They can be found in depths of at least 1,527 metres (5,010 ft) at maximum. [2] It lives in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters in the deep sea. [2]

Description

Ventral view of M. muelleri, showing the photophores used for counterillumination. Maurolicus muelleri ventral.jpg
Ventral view of M. muelleri, showing the photophores used for counterillumination.
Fresh-caught specimen of Maurolicus muelleri TCMmcrop.jpg
Fresh-caught specimen of Maurolicus muelleri

Maurolicus muelleri has a fusiform body shape with a moderately sized, subvertical mouth. M. muelleri is countershaded to provide camouflage in the open-ocean, with a dark dorsal surface, silvered flanks and clustered photophores on the ventral surface for counterillumination. In fresh-caught specimens, these photophores are coloured a light pink/purple. They have 9 to 12 dorsal fin rays, 17-19 pectoral fin rays, 7 pelvic fin rays and 22 to 28 anal fin rays. [3] They can grow up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) at maximum length, but usually grows up to 4 centimetres (1.6 in). [2]

Photophores

Photophores are glandular organs that, in M. muelleri, are made up of several parts. The photogenic chamber, made up of small, spherical light-producing cells, is split into a subspherical tank and conic projector, embedded inside a reflector made of guanine crystals. Ventral to the photogenic chamber is a cellular lens that is itself covered on the ventral surface by a gelatinous dioptric layer. [4]

Eyes

Maurolicus muelleri has large eyes with a retina uniquely adapted to the animal's mesopelagic habitat. M. muelleri inhabits surface waters only during twilight hours, requiring acute mesopic vision which in most vertebrates is achieved through combining dim-light rod cells and bright-light cone cells. Fish in the genus Maurolicus have developed a unique photoreceptor where a cone opsin and phototransduction cascade is found in cells transmuted into a rod-like morphology. These rod-like cone receptors are tuned to the blue-shifted mesopic light conditions dominant in M. muelleri's habitat and are likely a more efficient method of mesopic vision than would be feasible with two improperly-functioning photoreceptor types. [5]

Ecology

Trophic ecology

Mueller's pearlside is a zooplanktivore, with exact diet composition varying geographically and seasonally. For example, Copepods are the main constituent of their diet in the Sea of Japan [6] and in waters surrounding Korea, [7] with the euphausiid species Euphausia pacifica of secondary importance near Japan. [6] Euphausiids and copepods are the dominant prey items year-round off near the eastern continental slope of Tasmania. [8] In Masfjorden, Norway, copepods are most important in the autumn, [9] while earlier in the year Cladocerans are most important. [10] Amphipods and pteropods have also been reported from stomach contents. [6]

Maurolicus muelleri inhabits a tertiary trophic position [6] and, as such, provides a trophic link between zooplankton and larger predators. A wide range of fish species prey on M. muelleri, including commercially-important species such as albacores, skipjack tuna, hake, and blue whiting. [11] [12] [13] [14] They are also predated on by several cephalopods, including the squids Illex coindetii and Todaropsis eblanae [15] and the octopus Enteroctopus magnificus [16] , and marine mammals including common dolphins, sei whales, Bryde's whales, and fin whales. [11] [17] [18] [19]

Parasitology

Due to its trophic position, M. muelleri plays a role as an intermediate or paratenic host to a variety of parasitic taxa, with very few parasites reaching adulthood while infecting the pearlside. For example, in a study that examined 1329 individual Maurolicus muelleri specimens, 3720 parasites were found with only 5 individual adult parasites. [20] Endoparasites recorded from Maurolicus muelleri include the trematodes Derogenes varicose, Brachyphallus crenatus, and Lecithaster confusus, cestodes including Bothriocephalus sp. and Scolex pleuronectis, the nematodes Hysterothylacium aduncum and Anisakis simplex [20] [21] . One of the only species to reach adulthood parasitising M. muelleri is the ectoparasitic copepod Sarcotretes scopeli. [20] A "fungoid mass", tentatively identified as being from the protist genus Ichthyophonus , has been identified in pearlsides caught near Australia. [22]

Behavior

Diel vertical migration

As with many mesopelagic species, Maurolicus muelleri undergoes diel vertical migration (DVM), however this behaviour is more complex and varied in M. muelleri than that descriptor usually entails. The specific nature of this migration can vary seasonally, between years, an across geography, as well as across the ontogeny of individual fishes. [23]

The vertical migration of M. muelleri has been best studied in Masfjorden, where a fifteen-month acoustic survey was undertaken. In Masfjorden, M. muelleri formed distinct scattering layers, with the deepest layer composed of adults and a shallow layer composed of post-larvae. [23] The depth of these scattering layers is thought to be a result of M. muelleri having a "light comfort zone", inhabiting depths where light levels are neither too bright nor too dark. Individual fish may move between scattering layers, indicating that the comfort zones are broader than suggested in the typical isolume hypothesis. [24] Here, M. muelleri displayed consistent, typical DVM patterns (i.e. remaining at depth during the day and ascending to the surface at night) during summer months only, with individuals feeding at dawn and dusk. [23]

Their behaviour, however, varied in the autumn and winter. In years where their Calanus copepod prey, which overwinter at depth, were abundant, adults in the winter delayed their vertical migration until approximately three hours before dawn due potentially to a reduced need to feed at the surface, with some individuals remaining at depth for the entire night, feeding entirely on deep-overwintering prey. Towards the end of the winter, adults underwent interrupted ascents, migrating to depths that were greater than reached during typical DVM as they preyed on deep-wintering prey partway through their seasonal ascent to the surface. Some individuals undertook a reversed DVM during winter, diving to slightly greater depths during daylight hours, to feed on deep-overwintering prey in optimal light conditions. [23] In the Benguela system and in the Gulf of Oman, DVM is known to occur, with fish ascending to within 10m of the surface in response to the first light of dawn before diving into deep waters. [25]

Predator evasion

In latitudes where summer nights are short and bright, such as in the Arctic Circle, M. muelleri may school in shallow waters at night to reduce the threat of predation. [26] Maurolicus muelleri in scattering layers can detect predators at distances of several metres during the day, and respond by diving as far as 50m below their original depths at speeds of 15–20 cm/s. [24] While most individuals reside in scattering layers to reduce predation risk, certain "bold individuals" will make forays into shallower waters above scattering layers, presumably in order to feed in move favourable light levels. It is unknown whether these bold individuals are atypical or whether a change in individual state (e.g. hunger) prompts these forays. [24]

Life History

Spawn timing in Maurolicus muelleri is regionally variable. In the Benguela system, breeding occurs year round, while in Australia spawning occurs in late winter and early spring. [22] [27] In Norway, spawning occurs between March and September, [28] however hatch timing is a strong predictor of recruitment success, with individuals hatching before mid-September experiencing poor conditions for growth. [29] Females mature at lengths of around 35mm, at the end of their first year, and fish below 30mm cannot be sexed. [22] A small fraction of individuals survive into their second year, reaching lengths of up to 50mm in Australia. [22]

Individual females can contain as many as 738 ova, [22] and in enclosed spaces eggs can be extremely abundant, reaching numbers as high as 5.8x10^11 in Fensfjorden. [30] Eggs settle at a depth of around 200m in the Benguela system. [27] The eggs are surrounded by a distinctive hexagonal-patterned membrane. [22]

Importance to Fisheries

At present, M. muelleri is of minor importance to fisheries, with several countries, including Russia, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands attempting to pursue it as a resource after the collapse of other fisheries, with no nation landing more than 50,000 tonnes in a single year. [1] The species continues to be a focus of speculation for future mesopelagic fisheries, [31] however a number of technical hurdles will need to be surmounted in order to make pearlsides a cost-effective fishery target. [32]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep-sea fish</span> Fauna found in deep-sea areas

Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters, that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea. The lanternfish is, by far, the most common deep-sea fish. Other deep-sea fishes include the flashlight fish, cookiecutter shark, bristlemouths, anglerfish, viperfish, and some species of eelpout.

The mesopelagiczone, also known as the middle pelagic or twilight zone, is the part of the pelagic zone that lies between the photic epipelagic and the aphotic bathypelagic zones. It is defined by light, and begins at the depth where only 1% of incident light reaches and ends where there is no light; the depths of this zone are between approximately 200 to 1,000 meters below the ocean surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sternoptychidae</span> Family of fishes

The marine hatchetfishes or deep-sea hatchetfishes as well as the related bottlelights, pearlsides and constellationfishes are small deep-sea ray-finned fish of the stomiiform family Sternoptychidae. They are not closely related to and should not be confused with the freshwater hatchetfishes, which are teleosts in the characiform family Gasteropelecidae. The Sternoptychidae have 10 genera and about 70 species altogether.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonostomatidae</span> Family of fishes

The Gonostomatidae are a family of mesopelagic marine fish, commonly named bristlemouths, lightfishes, or anglemouths. It is a relatively small family, containing only eight known genera and 32 species. However, bristlemouths make up for their lack of diversity with relative abundance, numbering in the hundreds of trillions to quadrillions. The genus Cyclothone is thought to be one of the most abundant vertebrate genera in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lanternfish</span> Family of fishes

Lanternfish are small mesopelagic fish of the large family Myctophidae. One of two families in the order Myctophiformes, the Myctophidae are represented by 246 species in 33 genera, and are found in oceans worldwide. Lanternfishes are aptly named after their conspicuous use of bioluminescence. Their sister family, the Neoscopelidae, are much fewer in number but superficially very similar; at least one neoscopelid shares the common name "lanternfish": the large-scaled lantern fish, Neoscopelus macrolepidotus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific viperfish</span> Species of fish

The Pacific viperfish, Chauliodus macouni, is a predatory deep-sea fish found in the North Pacific. It is reported as being either mesopelagic or bathypelagic, with diel vertical migration to shallower waters. The Pacific viperfish is one of the nine different species that belong to the genus Chauliodus, the viperfish. The Pacific viperfish tend to be the largest of the species, typically reaching lengths of up to 1 foot and are considered an example of deep-sea gigantism. The length-weight relationship of the pacific viperfish varies with sex with females tending to be longer and heavier than males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelagic fish</span> Fish in the pelagic zone of ocean waters

Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters—being neither close to the bottom nor near the shore—in contrast with demersal fish that live on or near the bottom, and reef fish that are associated with coral reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viperfish</span> Genus of fishes

A viperfish is any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. Viperfishes are mostly found in the mesopelagic zone and are characterized by long, needle-like teeth and hinged lower jaws. A typical viperfish grows to lengths of 30 cm (12 in). Viperfishes undergo diel vertical migration and are found all around the world in tropical and temperate oceans. Viperfishes are capable of bioluminescence and possess photophores along the ventral side of their body, likely used to camouflage them by blending in with the less than 1% of light that reaches to below 200 meters depth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoplight loosejaw</span> Genus of fishes

The stoplight loosejaws are small, deep-sea dragonfishes of the genus Malacosteus, classified either within the subfamily Malacosteinae of the family Stomiidae, or in the separate family Malacosteidae. They are found worldwide, outside of the Arctic and Subantarctic, in the mesopelagic zone below a depth of 500 meters. This genus once contained three nominal species: M. niger, M. choristodactylus, and M. danae, with the validity of the latter two species being challenged by different authors at various times. In 2007, Kenaley examined over 450 stoplight loosejaw specimens and revised the genus to contain two species, M. niger and the new M. australis.

<i>Malacosteus niger</i> Species of fish

Malacosteus niger, commonly known as the black dragon fish, is a species of deep-sea fish. Some additional common names for this species include: northern stoplight loosejaw, lightless loosejaw, black loosejaw, and black hinged-head. It belongs to the family Stomiidae, or dragonfishes. It is among the top predators of the open mesopelagic zone. M. niger is a circumglobal species, which means that it inhabits waters ranging from the tropics to the subarctics. Not many studies have been conducted on its feeding habits, but recent research suggests that M. niger primarily feed on calanoid copepods which is a form of zooplankton. Indeed, it appears that M. niger primarily prey on zooplankton despite its apparent morphological adaptations for the consumption of relatively large prey. Another unique adaptation for this species is its ability to produce both red and blue bioluminescence. Most mesopelagic species aren't capable of producing red bioluminescence. This is advantageous because most other species cannot perceive red light, therefore allowing M. niger to camouflage part of itself to its prey and predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sloane's viperfish</span> Species of fish

Sloane's viperfish, Chauliodus sloani, is a predatory mesopelagic dragonfish found in waters across the world. The species was first described by German scientists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider in their 1801 book Systema ichthyologiae: iconibus CX illustratum, volume 1. Female C. sloani reach maturity between 133 and 191 mm, while males likely reach maturity at slightly smaller body lengths. It has two rows of photophores along its ventral side. It is believed that C. sloani can adjust the intensity of bioluminescence of the ventral photophores to camouflage itself from predators that might see its shadow from below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefly squid</span> Species of cephalopod also known as the sparkling enope squid

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diel vertical migration</span> A pattern of daily vertical movement characteristic of many aquatic species

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<i>Ornithoteuthis antillarum</i> Species of squid

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lipid pump</span>

The lipid pump sequesters carbon from the ocean's surface to deeper waters via lipids associated with overwintering vertically migratory zooplankton. Lipids are a class of hydrocarbon rich, nitrogen and phosphorus deficient compounds essential for cellular structures. This lipid carbon enters the deep ocean as carbon dioxide produced by respiration of lipid reserves and as organic matter from the mortality of zooplankton.

<i>Neoscopelus macrolepidotus</i> Species of fish

Neoscopelus macrolepidotus, also known as a large-scaled lantern fish, is a species of small mesopelagic or bathypelagic fish of the family Neoscopelidae, which contains six species total along three genera. The family Neoscopelidae is one of the two families of the order Myctophiformes. Neoscopelidae can be classified by the presence of an adipose fin. The presence of photophores, or light-producing organs, further classify the species into the genus Neoscopelus. N. macrolepidotus tends to be mesopelagic until the individuals become large adults, which is when they settle down to the bathypelagic zone.

A micronekton is a group of organisms of 2 to 20 cm in size which are able to swim independently of ocean currents. The word 'nekton' is derived from the Greek νήκτον, translit. nekton, meaning "to swim", and was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1890.

References

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  30. ↑ Lopes, Plàcida do Carmo (1979). "Eggs and larvae of Maurolicus muelleri (Gonostomatidae) and other fish eggs and larvae from two fjords in western Norway". Sarsia. 64 (3): 199–210. doi:10.1080/00364827.1979.10411382. ISSN   0036-4827.
  31. ↑ Standal, Dag; Grimaldo, Eduardo (2020-09-01). "Institutional nuts and bolts for a mesopelagic fishery in Norway". Marine Policy. 119: 104043. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104043 . hdl: 11250/2675582 . ISSN   0308-597X.
  32. ↑ Eduardo Grimaldo; Leif Grimsmo; Paula Alvarez; Bent Herrmann; Guro Møen Tveit; Rachel Tiller; Rasa Slizyte; Naroa Aldanondo; Trude Guldberg; Bendik Toldnes; Ana Carvajal; Marte Schei; Merethe Selnes (December 2020). "Investigating the potential for a commercial fishery in the Northeast Atlantic utilizing mesopelagic species". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 77 (7–8): 2541–2556. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsaa114 . hdl: 11250/2685454 .
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