Oophaga sylvatica

Last updated

Oophaga sylvatica
Dendrobates sylvaticus PLoS.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Dendrobatidae
Genus: Oophaga
Species:
O. sylvatica
Binomial name
Oophaga sylvatica
(Funkhouser, 1956) [2]
Synonyms

Dendrobates histrionicus sylvaticusFunkhouser, 1956
Dendrobates sylvaticusFunkhouser, 1956

Contents

Oophaga sylvatica, sometimes known as its Spanish name diablito, is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae found in Southwestern Colombia and Northwestern Ecuador. [3] Its natural habitat is lowland and submontane rainforest; it can, however, survive in moderately degraded areas, at least in the more humid parts of its range. It is a very common frog in Colombia, but has disappeared from much of its Ecuadorian range. It is threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) and agricultural pollution and sometimes seen in the international pet trade. [4]

This species occurs in several color morphs. For example, the Bilsa Biological Station (operated by the Jatun Sacha Foundation) boasts three color morphs—red, yellow, and orange—within their 3000-ha protected area located within Ecuador's Mache and Chindul coastal mountain ranges. [4]

Description

Oophaga sylvatica only displays sexual dimorphism in body size, as both males and females typically have a snout-vent length of 26 – 38 mm, with the males being only slightly larger on average than females. [4] [5] Amongst other closely related species, they are the largest. [3] These species sport aposematic coloration, exhibiting both polytypic and polymorphic variation. [6] Aposematic coloration serves as a visual warning to potential predators that the species is unpalatable which they will soon realize after making the mistake of trying to attack an Oophaga sylvatica. While the patterning of color varies widely, the colors themselves reliably exhibit chromatic and achromatic contrast. The colors also typically are of a bright and exotic nature that is typically synonymous with toxic and poisonous species. This wide range of pattern variation suggests roughly equal fitness for such variation. The range of colors that O. sylvatica displays is also considerably constrained to varying shades of orange, black, and other similar colors. Such coloration allows them to blend in with the mottled forest floor, where they are typically found. Their skin is smooth, with no webbing between any of their toes. [3]

Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny

Oophaga sylvatica is a species that belongs to the family of Dendrobatidae, commonly called poison-dart frogs, characterized by their bright coloration and the toxic alkaloids found in their skin. Their phenotypic diversity in coloration is attributed to sexual and natural selection, not genetic drift. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] These frogs are known to be diurnal creatures and demonstrate terrestrial egg laying. [14] They also exhibit behavioral parental care of eggs and tadpoles. [14] Their family consists of 4 genera: Atopophrynus, Colostethus, Phyllobates, and Dendrobates. [15]

Also known as Dendrobates sylvaticus, the phylogenetic relationship for this species has been modified a couple of times, with most hypothetical models suggesting its closest relatives to be O. pumilio , O. arborea , O. speciosa , and O. granulifera . [16]

While sometimes the Oophaga sylvatica species is considered to be a complex species due to its high levels of morphological variation, genetic studies suggest different populations of Oophaga sylvatica are in fact only a single species. In populations in northwestern Ecuador, O. sylvatica was found to follow two main genetic lineages, separated by the Santiago River into northern and southern groups. [17] The northern groups consist of San Antonio, Lita, Alto Tambo, Durango, and Otokiki. These populations were distributed within a fairly close proximity to each other and those with overlapping regions often displayed a mix of the two population phenotypes. The southern populations consist of Felfa, Cristóbal Colón, Simón Bolívar, Quingüe, Cube, Puerto Quito, Santo Domingo, and La Maná. Located geographically in between the northern and southern populations in the Mache-Chindul protected area is the Mediana population. [18] Compared to the northern populations, the southern populations were found to be geographically distant. Both groups had significantly variable color diversity. [17]

Genetics

Similar to their geographical distribution, the northern and southern populations are separated into two distinct mitochondrial clades, then further categorized into three genetic clusters: northern, southeast, and southwest. [18] As the northern populations are closer to each other geographically, their genetic diversity is more homogeneous in comparison to the southern populations. [18] Within-clade variation is greater than between-clades, which can be attributed to a variety of causes, including gene flow, recent separation of populations, and the number and class of genetic markers used for study. [18]

Different O. sylvatica populations have all held relatively stable population numbers over time. Northern and southern populations likely diverged about 1.2 MYA, around the time of the Günz glaciation, which occurred roughly 1.1 MYA. [18] Afterwards, population expansion occurred starting around the late Pleistocene which also marks the beginning of the current interglacial period, during which the northern and southern populations likely hybridized, leading to the formation of the Mediana population. [18]

O. sylvatica is found in southwestern Colombia (green) and northeastern Ecuador (orange). Colombia Ecuador Locator.png
O. sylvatica is found in southwestern Colombia (green) and northeastern Ecuador (orange).

Habitat and distribution

O. sylvatica is natively distributed in regions of Southwestern Colombia and Northwestern Ecuador and has been reported in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Manabi, Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas, and Los Rios. [18] It inhabits humid tropical forests in mostly lowland and sub montane rainforest. [3] [4] These species are found in a variety of regions and heights even up to 1000 meters above sea level. [5] Within the Chocó rainforest in Ecuador, neotropical poison frogs including O. sylvatica are found within different types of habitats, including rivers, riparian zones, and interior forest. [19] Rivers typically boast the highest diversity of frog species; riparian zones have unique species compositions that include rare and endangered species; interior forest is more vulnerable to logging and other anthropomorphic alterations. [19]

Conservation

O. sylvatica is able to tolerate living in some degraded regions such as plantations. [3] This species prefers to live in the more humid parts of its habitat range. [3] [4] Its habitat is threatened by deforestation for anthropogenic land use, including agriculture, logging, mining, human settlements, and pollution. [5] However, because O. sylvatica raises their young in bromeliads which are absent in secondary and road-edge habitats, this species is overwhelmingly found in primary forest. [19] Besides its distribution being heavily biased towards primary forest, O. sylvatica is commonly observed and easy to identify, vocal during the day, and widespread in the Chocó rainforest, making it a good species indicator of habitat quality. [19] Last assessed by the IUCN, Oophaga sylvatica was categorized as a Near Threatened species, with its population trend decreasing. [4] It is considered of Concern and is part of Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora, or CITES. [4]

As O. sylvatica is found throughout southwestern Colombia, a megadiverse country with accelerating deforestation, it has been included in recent conservation efforts initiated in Colombia. [20] This effort, known as the EBC initiative (Translation from Spanish: "Binational Strategy for the Conservation and Participatory Monitoring of Threatened Species of the Key Biodiversity Areas in the Tropical Andes"), was built by the Ecological Foundation Los Colibríes de Altaquer (FELCA) with support from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). [20] EBC focuses on environmental education and conservation initiatives of impacted species and has created the “Festival of the Diablito Frog” to raise awareness in local communities about O. sylvatica and related conservation efforts. In collaboration with the Universidad de Nariño, FELCA, and San Francisco School students, members of the “Grupo Ecológico para la Conservación de la Rana Diablito (GERD)” project are currently designing different means of species conservation for O. sylvatica. [20]

Territoriality

Male home ranges typically are restricted to small calling territories, whereas the home ranges of the females are much larger. The males home ranges are about 56% smaller than the home ranges of females. Male Oophaga sylvatica also typically can only climb up to 2 meters in height, whereas females can climb up to 10 meters in height. Despite the smaller home range territory and limited climbing ability, when experimentally displaced from their territories, males demonstrated better homing accuracy on average, compared to females. This may be attributed to the androgen spillover hypothesis, which dictates that higher levels of androgen are correlated with better spatial abilities. Males were found to have higher levels of androgen on average, which supports the androgen spillover hypothesis. [21] Within their calling territories, males typically exhibit territorial and aggressive behaviors against other males of their own species. [14] Common territorial and aggressive behaviors by Oophaga sylvatica include simultaneous calling by male conspecifics, advancing and retreating, and wrestling. [22] [23] When inactive, Oophaga sylvatica usually take refuge under litter or wooden logs. Similar to other frogs, O. sylvatica is not a very migration-oriented species and rather stays close in proximity to its home range. [17]

Diet

O. sylvatica's diet consists primarily of leaf litter arthropods. Researchers found in an Ecuadorian sample of this species that the majority of its diet consists of ants, ranging anywhere from 40% to 86%. A total of 44 ant genera were found, from 9 subfamilies, with the Myrmicinae subfamily constituting a majority. [24] Other insects the frog consumes include mites, springtails, and insect larvae, however these species are consumed at a much smaller abundance and the consumption of these species are dependent on the abundance present in the frog's ecosystem. [25] The ant and mite species O. sylvatica consumes contributes to its accumulation of and variation in alkaloid toxins stored in its skin, which is used as a defense mechanism. [26]

Deforestation can cause dietary changes in frog populations that live in deforested pastureland compared to frogs that live in the rainforest. The diet of pastureland frogs has a much smaller variety of alkaloids in it due to a reduced variety of ants, mites, and termites available to feed on compared to rainforest frogs. This translates to a reduced variety of alkaloids being sequestered in the pastureland frogs for their own defenses. [25]

Reproduction and life cycle

O. sylvatica males fertilize eggs externally. [5] Because their eggs are laid in or near shallow pools on land, this species lays fewer and larger eggs than its water-laying counterparts. Laying fewer eggs is believed to provide each egg with more resources to mature so that at the time of hatching, it has a greater chance of surviving on land, as tadpoles need water to survive. [14] Clutch sizes typically range between 4 and 20 eggs. [5]

Mating

Within its territory, males produce mating calls between the times of 6 AM and 7 PM. [3] Their calls are typically short in duration and high in frequency, averaging about 5 calls per second. [27] One study found call notes last for about 90 ms, with frequencies ranging from 800 to 3000 Hz. The most common frequencies occurred from the ranges of 1750 to 1950 Hz and 2300 to 2450 Hz. [28] Males usually call from elevated perches to be better heard and seen when heard. [27] A study published in 2014 suggests that because of the brightly colored aposematism frogs like O. sylvatica present, they use this protection from predators to their advantage by evolving more diverse, distinctive, and complex mating calls. [29]

Once a female is attracted to a male's territory, they engage in a series of mating behaviors, including pursuing and circling each other, crouching, and touching. During this ritual, the male leads the female to a suitable location for laying her eggs. [27] At the end of the mating ritual, copulation occurs without amplexus. Rather, the male deposits his sperm on the ground first, and then the female lays her eggs down after. [5] [30]

Parental care

Once the eggs are fertilized, the males bear the majority of the caretaking responsibility of the eggs. He typically visits the clutch several times each day and secretes fluids onto the eggs to prevent desiccation, as they are laid on land. Closer to the time of hatching, females will visit the clutch more frequently. It is essential for the parent to be present when the eggs hatch, so the tadpoles can be transported to water. Without transportation the tadpoles cannot survive, making it of the utmost importance that the parents are present when the eggs hatch. Once the eggs hatch, tadpole transport and care becomes solely the female's responsibility, without interaction or cooperation from the father. As suggested by their name, Oophaga, which translates to “egg” and “eat”, tadpoles only consume the trophic eggs produced by their mother until they are old enough to go through metamorphosis. [14] It has been suggested that the toxin's presence in oocytes serve to provide offspring with toxic defense mechanisms early on, when they are growing and still depend on their mother's trophic eggs for nourishment. [31]

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.jpg
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians.

Threats

O. sylvatica has also been affected by the significant and global decline of amphibian populations, with leading causes due to habitat destruction and anthropomorphization, disease, pollution, and higher levels of UV radiation. [32] Rapid population declines of O. sylvatica are largely attributed to habitat loss, disease, and the illegal pet trade. [33] These declines have been seen across many different species of frogs and amphibians.[ citation needed ]

While the predation of O. sylvatica has not yet been explicitly studied, it is likely that they share possible predation threats with their close relatives such as Oophaga pumilio , which includes birds, reptiles, and arthropods with high-functioning visual abilities. [34] [35]

There has been evidence of O. sylvatica infected by chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by the fungus chytrid that infects amphibians around the world. [4] [36]

Protective coloration and behavior

In addition to the toxicity of alkaloids on the O. sylvatica skin providing defense against predators, these same toxins cause them to give off vibrant colors. [37] O. sylvatica displays aposematic coloration, commonly observed in neotropical poison frogs and poison dart frogs, as part of their defense mechanism. By combining bright warning coloration and toxic chemicals on their skin that render them unpalatable, these frogs make themselves memorable to predators to ward off potential future attacks. [38] [39] As bright and contrasting colors are typically easier to remember and memorize, [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] common colors found in neotropical poison frogs like O. sylvatica include red, yellow and black, to ensure high luminance and hue contrast both between the different patterning on their skin and in comparison to the surrounding environment the frog is located. [40] [45] These colors and hues of high contrast While some populations of O. sylvatica display white coloration that is highly reflective of UV light, given the frog is probably unable to see UV-wavelength light because its close relative O. pumilio cannot, [46] this UV reflectance is likely a byproduct of aposematic coloration and not necessarily an important part of the signal. [47] [48] [49]

Histrionicotoxin. (-)-Histrionicotoxin Structural Formula V2.svg
Histrionicotoxin.

Physiology

Indolizine structural formula. Indolizin - Indolizine.svg
Indolizine structural formula.

O. sylvatica skin toxicity derived from an insect diet is shared amongst its phylogenetic family, as about 500 types of alkaloids have been identified from the skin extracts of various members of the Dendrobatidae family, representing over 20 distinct structural classes. [50] Amongst the toxins found in O. sylvatica are histrionicotoxins, indolizines, lehmizidines, and decahydroquinolines. [51] The toxins are found most abundantly in the frog's skin granular glands, liver, muscles, and oocytes. [52]

Digestion

These insects that O. sylvatica feed on contain lipophilic alkaloid toxins, and the toxins are then absorbed by the frog and used as a defense mechanism. These frogs cannot produce the toxins by themselves thus receive them from an exogenous source or a source that is not produced within themselves. Proteomic profiling has revealed that the livers of these frogs produce high levels of specialized proteins like saxiphilin that may be involved in alkaloid sequestration. [4] Ingesting lipophilic alkaloids causes a dramatic increase in saxiphilin expression in the skin and liver of the frog. Saxiphilin protein is likely involved in helping to transport the alkaloids from the digestive tract to the skin, where they are used in defense. O. sylvatica can sequester alkaloids in just 4 days compared to weeks in some other dendrobatid species such as the golden poison frog. [5]

There is ongoing[ as of? ] research investigating how O. sylvatica is able to sequester and use alkaloid toxins, as well as how its consumption of such toxins alter its molecular physiology related to metabolic functions. After ingestion, the frog's intestinal lining is designed to prevent passive absorption of toxins. Instead, as these toxins are small and lipophilic, they are transported through the blood via carrier proteins, and the lymph via chylomicrons. How exactly the toxins are able to arrive at the skin and be stored in granules is yet unknown, but researchers hypothesize this process likely involves coordination between various tissues and transport systems. [51] [52]

Sodium-Potassium Pump. Sodium-Potassium Pump.jpg
Sodium-Potassium Pump.

Toxins

While O. sylvatica harvests toxins from its diet for defensive use, its body must also strike a balance between usage and metabolism to prevent the organism from poisoning itself due to an overabundance of toxins. As such, proteomic profiling studies have found varying degrees of upregulation and downregulation of different metabolic-related proteins in these frogs, compared to non-toxic controls. Some drug-metabolizing proteins are found to be decreased, such as nicotinamide N-methyltransferase, found to detoxify xenobiotics, and cytochrome P450s, which are involved in small molecule metabolism. [53] Meanwhile, others are increased, such as glutathione S-transferase kappa 1. There have also been a host of proteins found to be upregulated in expression that may play a role in alkaloid transport. [53] ApoA4 is an apolipoprotein that could also function as an alkaloid transporter. The complement system is also found to be more active, especially the C3 protein, which may enhance alkaloid absorption. Parallels have been drawn with CVF, the cobra venom factor that is activated by cobra venom. Heat shock proteins were found to be upregulated in the liver, which could be used to bind decahydroquinoline, a form of alkaloid toxin, or as a response to the destabilizing ability of alkaloids on other proteins. [51] [52]

Alkaloids are commonly found to target voltage-gated sodium channels and nicotinamide acetylcholine receptors. It has been commonly found that frog resistance to the toxins they use for defense is linked to mutations in such ion channels. Evidence shows downregulation of various ion channels in O. sylvatica, including the amiloride-sensitive sodium channel, the sodium-potassium pump, and TRPV2, which functions to detect noxious chemicals. The sodium-potassium channel in particular has been found to contain mutations in various animals exhibiting toxin resistance. [51] [52]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poison dart frog</span> Family of amphibians

Poison dart frog is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to tropical Central and South America. These species are diurnal and often have brightly colored bodies. This bright coloration is correlated with the toxicity of the species, making them aposematic. Some species of the family Dendrobatidae exhibit extremely bright coloration along with high toxicity — a feature derived from their diet of ants, mites and termites— while species which eat a much larger variety of prey have cryptic coloration with minimal to no amount of observed toxicity. Many species of this family are threatened due to human infrastructure encroaching on their habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue poison dart frog</span> Species of amphibian

The blue poison dart frog or blue poison arrow frog is a poison dart frog found in the "forest islands" surrounded by the Sipaliwini Savanna in southern Suriname. Its indigenous Tirio name is okopipi. The name "azureus" comes from its azur blue color. While first described as a valid species and usually recognized as such in the past, recent authorities generally treat it as a morph of D. tinctorius, although a few treat it as a subspecies of D. tinctorius or continue to treat it as its own species. To what extent it differs from the blue D. tinctorius in southern Guyana, adjacent Pará (Brazil) and possibly far southwestern Suriname, also is a matter of dispute, and many herpetologists, as well as many people keeping poison dart frogs in captivity, often have not distinguished these, with all commonly being identified as "azureus".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aposematism</span> Honest signalling of an animals powerful defences

Aposematism is the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste or smell, sharp spines, or aggressive nature. These advertising signals may take the form of conspicuous coloration, sounds, odours, or other perceivable characteristics. Aposematic signals are beneficial for both predator and prey, since both avoid potential harm.

<i>Mantella</i> Genus of amphibians

Mantella are a prominent genus of aposematic frogs in the family Mantellidae, endemic to the island of Madagascar. Members of Mantella are diurnal and terrestrial, with bright aposematic coloration or cryptic markings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strawberry poison-dart frog</span> Species of amphibian

The strawberry poison frog, strawberry poison-dart frog or blue jeans poison frog is a species of small poison dart frog found in Central America. It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua through Costa Rica and northwestern Panamá. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations. The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding. O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dyeing poison dart frog</span> Species of amphibian

The dyeing poison dart frog, also known as the cobalt poison frog, tinc, or dyeing poison frog, is a species of poison dart frog. It is among the most variably colored and largest species of poison dart frogs, typically reaching snout–vent lengths of about 50 mm (2.0 in). It is distributed in the eastern portion of the Guiana Shield, including parts of French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Brazil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harlequin poison frog</span> Species of amphibian

The harlequin poison frog, also known as harlequin poison-dart frog, is a species of poison dart frog endemic to the Chocó region of western Colombia. The frog is normally found on the ground of tropical rain forests, among fallen limbs or leaf litter. Some frogs traditionally classified as Oophaga histrionica were separated as new species in 2018. These are Oophaga anchicayensis, Oophaga andresi and Oophaga solanensis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-banded poison dart frog</span> Species of amphibian

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden poison frog</span> Species of amphibian

The golden poison frog, also known as the golden dart frog or golden poison arrow frog, is a poison dart frog endemic to the rainforests of Colombia. The golden poison frog has become endangered due to habitat destruction within its naturally limited range. Despite its small size, this frog is considered to be the most poisonous extant animal species on the planet.

<i>Phyllobates bicolor</i> Species of amphibian

Phyllobates bicolor, or more commonly referred to as the black-legged poison dart frog, is the world's second-most toxic dart frog. Under the genus Phyllobates, this organism is often mistaken as Phyllobates terribilis, the golden poison frog, as both are morphologically similar. However, Phyllobatesbicolor is identifiable by the yellow or orange body and black or dark blue forelimbs and hindlegs, hence the name black-legged dart frog. Phyllobates bicolor are commonly found in tropical forests of the Chocó region of Colombia. The diurnal frogs live along the rainforest ground near streams or puddles that form. Notably, P. bicolor is a member of the family Dendrobatidae, or poison dart frog. P. bicolor, along with the rest of the Phyllobates species, produce a neurotoxin known as a batrachotoxin that inhibits specific transmembrane channels in cells. Due to this highly deadly toxin that the frogs secrete, many indigenous groups of the Colombian rainforest have extracted the toxins to create poison tipped darts used for hunting. During the breeding period, P. bicolor emits high pitched single notes as a mating call. As in all poison dart frogs, it is common for the father of tadpoles to carry the offspring on his back until they reach a suitable location for the tadpoles to develop. P. bicolor is an endangered species according to the IUCN red list. Currently, deforestation, habitat loss, and pollution pose the biggest threat to the species. Limited conservation efforts have been attempted to prevent further damage to the species. Despite this, there are still institutions such as the Baltimore National Aquarium in Baltimore, Maryland and the Tatamá National Natural Park in Colombia that are engaged in P. bicolor conservation efforts such as captive breeding.

<i>Dendrobates</i> Genus of amphibians

Dendrobates is a genus of poison dart frogs native to Central and South America. It once contained numerous species, but most originally placed in this genus have been split off into other genera such as Adelphobates, Ameerega, Andinobates, Epipedobates, Excidobates, Oophaga, Phyllobates and Ranitomeya, leaving only five large to medium-sized species in the genus Dendrobates. All the other genera used to be grouped in with Dendrobates because it was previously thought that all brightly colored poison dart frogs came from the same ancestor but this has since been proven to be incorrect. Dendrobates and Phyllobates evolved conspicuous coloration from the same common ancestor but not the same as any of the other genera listed above.

<i>Phyllobates</i> Genus of amphibians

Phyllobates is a genus of poison dart frogs native to Central and South America, from Nicaragua to Colombia. There are 3 different Colombian species of Phyllobates, considered highly toxic species due to the poison they contain in the wild.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mimic poison frog</span> Species of amphibian

Ranitomeya imitator, is a species of poison dart frog found in the north-central region of eastern Peru. Its common names include mimic poison frog and poison arrow frog, and it is one of the best known dart frogs. It was discovered in the late 1980s by Rainer Schulte who later split it up into more subspecies; describing each as a specific color morph, and sometimes having a separate behavioral pattern. The acoustics, morphs, and behavior of the species have been extensively researched.

The polkadot poison frog is a species of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae endemic to Panama, where it is known as rana venenosa in Spanish. Its natural habitats are humid lowland and montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss and is listed by the IUCN as being "critically endangered".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pumiliotoxin 251D</span> Chemical compound

Pumiliotoxin 251D is a toxic organic compound. It is found in the skin of poison frogs from the genera Dendrobates, Epipedobates, Minyobates, and Phyllobates and toads from the genus Melanophryniscus. Its name comes from the pumiliotoxin family (PTXs) and its molecular mass of 251 daltons. When the toxin enters the bloodstream through cuts in the skin or by ingestion, it can cause hyperactivity, convulsions, cardiac arrest and ultimately death. It is especially toxic to arthropods, even at low concentrations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histrionicotoxins</span>

Histrionicotoxins are a group of related toxins found in the skin of poison frogs from the family Dendrobatidae, notably Oophaga histrionica, which are native to Colombia. It is likely that, as with other poison frog alkaloids, histrionicotoxins are not manufactured by the amphibians, but absorbed from insects in their diet and stored in glands in their skin. They are notably less toxic than other alkaloids found in poison frogs, yet their distinct structure acts as a neurotoxin by non-competitive inhibition of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

<i>Oophaga</i> Genus of amphibians

Oophaga is a genus of poison-dart frogs containing twelve species, many of which were formerly placed in the genus Dendrobates. The frogs are distributed in Central and South America, from Nicaragua south through the El Chocó to northern Ecuador. Their habitats vary with some species being arboreal while other being terrestrial, but the common feature is that their tadpoles are obligate egg feeders. Most species in this genus are seriously threatened and O. speciosa is already extinct.

<i>Adelphobates</i> Genus of amphibians

Adelphobates is a small genus of poison dart frogs. They are found in the central and lower Amazon basin of Peru and Brazil, possibly Bolivia. It was originally erected as a sister group to the Dendrobates and Oophaga genera. The validity of the genus is still being discussed, with the alternative being "Dendrobates galactonotus group" within Dendrobates. One species originally placed in this genus as Adelphobates captivus has since been moved to the genus Excidobates erected in 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reticulated poison frog</span> Species of amphibian

The reticulated poison frog, known in French as dendrobate à ventre tacheté, is a species of poison dart frog. It is native to South America, where it can be found in Brazil, southeastern Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, and Peru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dendrobatinae</span> Subfamily of amphibians

Dendrobatinae is the main subfamily of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae, the poison dart frogs of Central and South America, found from Nicaragua to the Amazon basin in Brazil.

References

  1. ↑ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2019). "Oophaga sylvatica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T55203A85887077. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T55203A85887077.en . Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  2. ↑ "Oophaga sylvatica (Funkhouser, 1956)". Integrated Taxonomic Information System . Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Funkhouser, John W. (1956). "New frogs from Ecuador and southwestern Colombia". Zoologica: Scientific Contributions of the New York Zoological Society. 41 (9): 73–80. doi: 10.5962/p.190356 . S2CID   90986498.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IUCN (2016-08-02). "Oophaga sylvatica: IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T55203A85887077". doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2019-2.rlts.t55203a85887077.en .{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Anfibios del Ecuador". bioweb.bio. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
  6. ↑ Yeager, Justin; Barnett, James B. (2022). "Continuous Variation in an Aposematic Pattern Affects Background Contrast, but Is Not Associated With Differences in Microhabitat Use". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 10. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2022.803996 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  7. ↑ Summers, K.; Bermingham, E.; Weigt, L.; McCafferty, S.; Dahistrom, L. (1997-01-01). "Phenotypic and Genetic Divergence in Three Species of Dart-Poison Frogs With Contrasting Parental Behavior". Journal of Heredity. 88 (1): 8–13. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a023065 . ISSN   0022-1503. PMID   9048443.
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