Porcupine caribou

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Porcupine caribou
Caribou.jpg
Male Porcupine caribou (R. a. arcticus) grazing in Alaska
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Subfamily: Capreolinae
Genus: Rangifer
Species:
R. arcticus
Subspecies:
R. a. arcticus,

pearyi, fortidens, montanus, osborni, stonei,

dawsoni (extinct)
Trinomial name
Rangifer arcticus arcticus,

pearyi, fortidens, montanus, osborni, stonei,

dawsoni (extinct)
Richardson, 1829
Rangifer tarandus Map NA.svg
Approximate range of Porcupine caribou in yellow. Overlap with other subspecies of caribou is possible for contiguous range. 1. Woodland caribou (Rangifer caribou), which is subdivided into ecotypes: boreal, migratory and mountain, 2. R. a. dawsoni (extinct 1908), 3. R. a. arcticus, 4. R. t. groenlandicus, 5. R. a. arcticus, 6. R. a. pearyi

The Porcupine caribou(Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) is a herd or ecotype of barren-ground caribou, the subspecies of the reindeer or caribou found in Alaska, United States, and Yukon and the Northwest Territories, Canada. A recent revision changes the Latin name; see Taxonomy.

Contents

Migratory caribou herds are named after their calving grounds, in this case the Porcupine River, which runs through a large part of the range of the Porcupine herd. Though numbers fluctuate, the herd comprises about 218,000 animals (based on a July 2017 photocensus). [1] They migrate over 1,500 mi (2,400 km) a year between their winter range and calving grounds at the Beaufort Sea, the longest land migration route of any land mammal on Earth. Their range spans the Alaska-Yukon border and is a valued resource cooperatively managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Canadian wildlife agencies and local aboriginal peoples. The caribou are the primary sustenance of the Gwichʼin, a First Nations/Alaska Native people, who traditionally built their communities to align with the caribou's migration patterns. They are also routinely hunted by other indigenous peoples, including the Inupiat, the Inuvialuit, the Hän and the Northern Tutchone.

By July 2017, the Porcupine herd had reached a record high of about 202,000 to 235,000 animals. Sixteen years earlier, in 2001 the same herd was only half as large. While other barren-ground caribou herds have declined by 90%, the Porcupine herd has remained relatively stable.

Taxonomy

The Porcupine caribou, is a herd of the barren-ground caribou found in Alaska, United States, and Yukon and the Northwest Territories, Canada. It is included in the subspecies called the barren-ground caribou (R. tarandus groenlandicus). [2] [3] The Porcupine caribou was first named Rangifer ogilviensis Millais, 1915 [4] after the Ogilvie Mountains, part of its Yukon winter range. It has also been known as Grant's caribou (R. a. granti; subsequently R. t. granti).

Grant's caribou was described as a small, pale form occupying a limited range at the west end of the Alaska Peninsula and nearby islands. Originally described as Rangifer granti (Allen, 1902), [5] it was brought under barren-ground caribou as R. arcticus granti [6] [7] [8] because its size and form were closer to the barren-ground type than to the larger, darker montane forms in Alaska. When Banfield revised the Rangifer genus, bringing all reindeer and caribou under Rangifer tarandus, he gave the subspecies name granti to all the caribou in Alaska and some in Yukon, thus greatly expanding its range. Subsequently, taxonomists comparing Alaskan or Yukon migratory barren-ground caribou with those of mainland Canada labelled their Alaska/Yukon samples as R. t. granti. Youngman (1975) [9] re-assigned it to Canada/Alaska barren-ground caribou, R. tarandus groenlandicus after Banfield's (1961) [10] name change. Because Geist (1998), [11] and others, could find no morphological features to distinguish Alaskan from Canadian barren-ground caribou, granti was not accepted in the authoritative reference work, Mammalian Species of the World (Grubb, Artiodactyla in Wilson and Reeder 2005) [2] and its replacement, Handbook of the mammals of the World (Mattioli, Cervidae, in Wilson and Mittermeier 2011). [12] Caribou geneticists agree that Alaska/Yukon migratory barren-ground and Canadian barren-ground caribou are barely distinguishable (e.g., Cronin et al. 2005; [13] Yannic et al. 2013 [14] ). Further history of the name granti is given in Reindeer.

In a stunning sequel, caribou geneticists discovered that caribou still living at the western end of the Alaskan Peninsula and nearby islands—which contains the type locality of Rangifer granti Allen 1902—are genetically distinct from, and do not interbreed with, nearby forms of caribou. Its range encompasses the type locality designated by Allen 1902. [15] [16] [17] Thus, R. a. granti was rediscovered in its original, limited range and its type species in the American Museum of Natural History remains valid.

A recent revision [18] (see Reindeer: Taxonomy) returns the Porcupine and other herds of barren-ground caribou to R. arcticus arcticus Richardson 1829. [19]

Range

Boundary of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in yellow Anwrmap.jpg
Boundary of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in yellow

The Porcupine herd range covers 1,500 mi (2,400 km), from the calving grounds, the Porcupine River after which they are named, to "the river valleys and slopes in the Ogilvie and Richardson Mountains in the Yukon and the southern Brooks Range in Alaska." [20] : 3  The calving area is located on 1.5 million acres (0.61 million ha) in the Porcupine River coastal region of the Beaufort Sea known as the 1002 area, which is part of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. [21] The area runs through a large part of the range of the Porcupine herd. [1] [22]

In the spring the pregnant cows move "northeast from the Alaskan winter ranges or north and northwest from the Canadian winter ranges. If snowmelt is early, they will then move westward along the north slope of the Brooks Range into Alaska." [20] : 3 

Caribou calving grounds, 1983-2001 Caribou calving map.jpg
Caribou calving grounds, 1983–2001

Most Porcupine caribou calves are born in the first week of June and they are at their most vulnerable from their primary predators on the calving ground—golden eagles, grizzly bears and wolves—during the first three weeks when they are dependent on milk from their mothers. About one quarter of them die during this period. [20] : 5, 6  Their 1,500-mile (2,400 km) annual land migration between their winter range in the boreal forests of Alaska and Yukon over the mountains to the coastal plain and their calving grounds on the Beaufort Sea coastal plain, [21] is the longest of any land mammal on earth.

Management

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Canadian wildlife agencies, and local aboriginal peoples cooperatively manage the Porcupine herd. The Porcupine Caribou Management Board (PCMB) advisory board was established under the Porcupine Caribou Management Agreement in 1985, whose members include representatives from the Gwich'in Tribal Council, Na-cho Nyäk Dün, Vuntut Gwitchin, Government of Yukon, Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in, Inuvialuit Game Council, the Government of the Northwest Territories and the Government of Canada. [23] The PCMB publish an annual Porcupine Caribou Harvest Report. [24] In their February 2018 report they recorded that a 2017 photocensus (survey) estimated a mean of 218,457 caribou (95% CI = 202,106 to 234,808) caribou, indicative of an increasing trend from 2010 to 2017, from 169,000 to about 218,000. [24] : 2  On July 17, 1987, the United States and the Canadian governments signed the "Agreement on the Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd," a treaty designed to protect the subspecies from damage to its habitat and migration routes. [25] [26] Both the Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park border the ANWR. The treaty required an impact assessment and required that where activity in one country is "likely to cause significant long-term adverse impact on the Porcupine Caribou Herd or its habitat, the other Party will be notified and given an opportunity to consult prior to final decision". [26] This focus on the Porcupine caribou led to the animal becoming a visual rhetoric or symbol of the drilling issue much in the same way the polar bear has become the symbol of global warming. [27]

Herd size

"We might have just recorded [July 2017] the largest number for this herd since modern scientific monitoring started in the 1970s... Given the state of caribou worldwide right now, it's a positive, shining light in the caribou world — that there are some herds that are doing well."

— Mike Suitor, regional biologist, North Yukon Region with Environment Yukon, Dawson City. 2018. CBC News

Unlike many other Rangifer species, subspecies and their ecotypes, the Porcupine herd is stable at relatively high numbers. Some barren-ground caribou herds have "declined more than 90 per cent from historic averages", causing the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), to sound the alarm. [28]

According to an aerial count reported in July 2017, the size of the Porcupine herd had increased to "between 202,000 and 235,000 animals, nearly twice the number of animals recorded at a low point in 2001. [28]

A previous peak population occurred in 1989 with 178,000 animals and was followed by a decline by 2001 to 123,000. A recovery was observed in 2010 with an increase to 169,000 animals. [1] [22]

Potential threats to the Porcupine herd

Climate change and the increased frequency of extreme weather events, such as unprecedented late slow melting, negatively affect the Porcupine herd. As a result there was "very high early calf mortality." [20] : 10  The primary predators for calves are golden eagles, grizzly bears and wolves. [20] "Caribou exposed to industrial development shift away from the pipelines and roads." [20] : 12  The passage of the provision opening ANWR's 1002 to oil and gas drilling is considered to be a threat. [21] In 2001, some biologists feared development in the Refuge would "push caribou into the foothills, where calves would be more prone to predation." [21] In their 2005 report, Russell and McNeil reiterated concerns that new calving areas would make the herd more vulnerable, as area 1002 provides a much higher quality of diet conditions than the alternatives in Canada. [20]

Indigenous peoples

The Porcupine caribou are a valued resource as primary sustenance to indigenous peoples in Alaska and northern Canada. Gwichʼin, a First Nations/Alaska Native people traditionally built their communities to align with the caribou's migration patterns. The Inupiat, the Inuvialuit, the Hän and the Northern Tutchone also hunt caribou from this herd on a regular basis.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

Caribou in the western Brooks range Caribou in Brooks range.jpg
Caribou in the western Brooks range

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) covers 19 million acres (7.7 million ha) of the northern Alaskan coast, [29] in northeast Alaska [21] between the Beaufort Sea to the north, Brooks Range to the south and Prudhoe Bay to the west. It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980. [30]

The Alaska North Slope with The National Petroleum Reserve to the West, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge with area 1002 to the east. NPRA F1lg.gif
The Alaska North Slope with The National Petroleum Reserve to the West, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge with area 1002 to the east.

On December 22, 2017, President Donald Trump signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, a provision that opened the 1002 area of ANWR to oil and gas drilling, into law. The Act contains provisions that would open 1.5 million acres in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to oil and gas drilling. [31] [32] Opening the Arctic Refuge to drilling "unleashed a torrent of opposition from conservationists and scientists." [33] Democrats [34] [35] and environmentalist groups such as the Wilderness Society criticized the Republican effort. [35] Since 1977 area 1002, which encompasses much of the Porcupine caribou calving grounds, has been a topic of controversy. [36] The 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) subsection on the coastal plain, known as the "1002 area" [37] is located between the Brooks Range and the Beaufort Sea. The plain "stretches west from the Yukon border more than a hundred miles, a flat expanse of tundra laced with tussock wetlands and braided rivers." [21]

Ivvavik National Park

Video of Porcupine caribou in Becharof National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska

Ivvavik National Park protects a portion of the calving grounds of the Porcupine herd and restricts the number of people who may visit annually. During the calving in May, caribou are at their most vulnerable. Caribou management calls for preservation of calving grounds. Large portions of the calving grounds have been protected in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska, United States, and Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park in Yukon, Canada. [38]

Central Arctic caribou herd

In 2001, proponents of the development of the oil fields at Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk, which would be approximately 60 miles (97 km) west of the refuge, argued that the Central Arctic caribou herd had increased its numbers "in spite of several hundred miles of gravel roads and more than a thousand miles of elevated pipe." However, the Central Arctic herd is much smaller than the Porcupine herd and has a range that is much larger.

The 1002 coastal plain provides calving habitat for [the Porcupine herd] nearly five times as large as the central Arctic herd, in an area one-fifth as big. Some biologists fear development here could push caribou into the foothills, where calves would be more prone to predation

— Mitchell National Geographic 2001 [21]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic National Wildlife Refuge</span> Protected area in Alaska

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is a national wildlife refuge in northeastern Alaska, United States on traditional Gwich'in lands. It consists of 19,286,722 acres (78,050.59 km2) in the Alaska North Slope region. It is the largest national wildlife refuge in the country, slightly larger than the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. The refuge is administered from offices in Fairbanks. ANWR includes a large variety of species of plants and animals, such as polar bears, grizzly bears, black bears, moose, caribou, wolves, eagles, lynx, wolverine, marten, beaver and migratory birds, which rely on the refuge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reindeer</span> Species of deer, also known as caribou

The reindeer or caribou is a species of deer with circumpolar distribution, native to Arctic, subarctic, tundra, boreal, and mountainous regions of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. It is the only representative of the genus Rangifer. Herd size varies greatly in different geographic regions. More recent studies suggest the splitting of reindeer and caribou into six distinct species over their range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecotype</span> Classification of distinct populations lesser than subspecies

In evolutionary ecology, an ecotype, sometimes called ecospecies, describes a genetically distinct geographic variety, population, or race within a species, which is genotypically adapted to specific environmental conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gwichʼin</span> Ethnic group

The Gwichʼin are an Athabaskan-speaking First Nations people of Canada and an Alaska Native people. They live in the northwestern part of North America, mostly above the Arctic Circle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Porcupine River</span> River in Canada and the United States

The Porcupine River is a 916 km (569 mi) tributary of the Yukon River in Canada and the United States. It rises in the Ogilvie Mountains north of Dawson City, Yukon, Canada. From there it flows north through the community of Old Crow, veers southwest into the U.S. state of Alaska, and enters the larger river at Fort Yukon, Alaska. It derives its name from the Gwich'in word for the river, Ch'oonjik, or "Porcupine Quill River".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Yukon</span>

Yukon is in the northwestern corner of Canada and is bordered by Alaska and the Northwest Territories. The sparsely populated territory abounds with natural scenic beauty, with snowmelt lakes and perennial white-capped mountains, including many of Canada's highest mountains. The territory's climate is Arctic in territory north of Old Crow, subarctic in the region, between Whitehorse and Old Crow, and humid continental climate south of Whitehorse and in areas close to the British Columbia border. Most of the territory is boreal forest with tundra being the main vegetation zone only in the extreme north and at high elevations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic Refuge drilling controversy</span> Question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been an ongoing political controversy in the United States since 1977. As of 2017, Republicans have attempted to allow drilling in ANWR almost fifty times, finally being successful with the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Migratory woodland caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The migratory woodland caribou refers to two herds of Rangifer tarandus that are included in the migratory woodland ecotype of the subspecies Rangifer tarandus caribou or woodland caribou that live in Nunavik, Québec, and Labrador: the Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH) and the George River caribou herd (GRCH) south of Ungava Bay. Rangifer tarandus caribou is further divided into three ecotypes: the migratory barren-ground ecotype, the mountain ecotype or woodland (montane) and the forest-dwelling ecotype. According to researchers, the "George River herd which morphologically and genetically belong to the woodland caribou subspecies, at one time represented the largest caribou herd in the world and migrating thousands of kilometers from boreal forest to open tundra, where most females calve within a three-week period. This behaviour is more like barren-ground caribou subspecies." They argued that "understanding ecotype in relation to existing ecological constraints and releases may be more important than the taxonomic relationships between populations." The migratory George River caribou herd travel thousands of kilometres moving from wintering grounds to calving grounds near the Inuit hamlet of Kangiqsualujjuaq, Nunavik. In Nunavik and Labrador, the caribou population varies considerably with their numbers peaking in the later decades of each of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. In 1984, about 10,000 caribou of the George River herd drowned during their bi-annual crossing of the Caniapiscau River during the James Bay Hydro Project flooding operation. The most recent decline at the turn of the 20th century caused much hardship for the Inuit and Cree communities of Nunavik, who hunt them for subsistence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peary caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The Peary caribou is a subspecies of caribou found in the High Arctic islands of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories in Canada. They are the smallest of the North American caribou, with the females weighing an average of 60 kg (130 lb) and the males 110 kg (240 lb). In length the females average 1.4 m and the males 1.7 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barren-ground caribou</span> Subspecies of deer

The barren-ground caribou is a subspecies of the reindeer that is found in the Canadian territories of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, in northern Alaska and in south-western, Greenland. It includes the Porcupine caribou of Yukon and Alaska. The barren-ground caribou is a medium-sized caribou, smaller and lighter-colored than the boreal woodland caribou, with the females weighing around 90 kg (200 lb) and the males around 150 kg (330 lb). However, on some of the smaller islands, the average weight may be less. The large migratory herds of barren-ground caribou take their names from the traditional calving grounds, such as the Ahiak herd, the Baffin Island herds, the Bathurst herd, the Beverly herd, the Bluenose East herd, the Bluenose West herd, the Porcupine herd and the Qamanirjuaq herd.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reindeer hunting in Greenland</span> The practice of hunting reindeer for their meat, fur, and antlers in Greenland

Reindeer hunting in Greenland is of great importance to the Greenlandic Inuit and sports hunters, both residents and tourists. Reindeer (caribou) are an important source of meat, and harvesting them has always played an important role in the history, culture, and traditions of the Greenlandic Inuit. Controlled hunting is important for the welfare of reindeer, the quality of life for Inuit, both as food, and part of the their culture and Greenlandic culture in general, and the preservation of tundra grazing areas. Therefore, scientific research is regularly performed to determine the quotas needed to maintain a proper ecological balance.

Being Caribou is a 2005 documentary film that chronicles the travels of husband and wife Karsten Heuer and Leanne Allison following the migration of the Porcupine caribou herd, in order to explore the Arctic Refuge drilling controversy. The journey lasted 5 months, starting from the community of Old Crow, Yukon on April 8, 2003 and ending September 8, 2003. The film is produced by the National Film Board of Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finnish forest reindeer</span> Subspecies of deer

The Finnish forest reindeer(Rangifer fennicus fennicus, also known as Eurasian or European forest reindeer is a rare subspecies of the reindeer native to Finland and northwestern Russia. They are found primarily in Russian Karelia and the provinces of North Karelia, Savonia and Kainuu in Finland, though some range into central south Finland. They are distinct from the semi-domesticated mountain reindeer in their larger size, longer legs and preference for dense boreal forest habitat, where they are rarely seen by humans, over the open tundra. The Finnish herd migrates seasonally back and forth across the long Russo-Finnish border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga</span> Taiga ecoregion of Canada and the United States

The interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga is an ecoregion in the taiga and boreal forests biome, of far northern North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic coastal tundra</span> Tundra ecoregion of Canada and the United States

The Arctic coastal tundra is an ecoregion of the far north of North America, an important breeding ground for a great deal of wildlife.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic foothills tundra</span> Tundra ecoregion of Alaska, United States

The Arctic foothills tundra is an ecoregion of the far north of North America, lying inland from the north coast of Alaska. This is permafrost tundra with an average annual temperature below freezing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boreal woodland caribou</span> Subspecies of caribou or reindeer in North America

The boreal woodland caribou, also known as woodland caribou, boreal forest caribou and forest-dwelling caribou, is a North American subspecies of reindeer found primarily in Canada with small populations in the United States. Unlike the Porcupine caribou and barren-ground caribou, boreal woodland caribou are primarily sedentary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolphin-Union caribou</span> Migratory population of caribou

Dolphin and Union Caribou, Dolphin and Union caribou herd, Dolphin-Union, locally known as Island Caribou, are a migratory population of barren-ground caribou, Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus, that occupy Victoria Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the nearby mainland. They are endemic to Canada. They migrate across the Dolphin and Union Strait from their summer grazing on Victoria Island to their winter grazing area on the Nunavut-Northwest Territories mainland in Canada. It is unusual for North American caribou to seasonally cross sea ice and the only other caribou to do so are the Peary caribou who are smaller in size and population. They were listed as Endangered by Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) since November 2017.

Caribou herds in Canada are discrete populations of seven subspecies that are represented in Canada. Caribou can be found from the High Arctic region south to the boreal forest and Rocky Mountains and from the east to the west coasts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reindeer distribution</span> Reindeer distribution around the world

The reindeer is a widespread and numerous species in the northern Holarctic, being present in both tundra and taiga. Originally, the reindeer was found in Scandinavia, eastern Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and northern China north of the 50th latitude. In North America, it was found in Canada, Alaska, and the northern contiguous USA from Washington to Maine. In the 19th century, it was apparently still present in southern Idaho. It also occurred naturally on Sakhalin, Greenland, and probably even in historical times in Ireland. During the late Pleistocene era, reindeer were found further south, such as at Nevada, Tennessee, and Alabama in North America and Spain in Europe. Today, wild reindeer have disappeared from many areas within this large historical range, especially from the southern parts, where it vanished almost everywhere. Populations of wild reindeer are still found in Norway, Finland, Siberia, Greenland, Alaska, and Canada.

References

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  15. ↑ Mager KH, Colson KE, Groves P, Hundertmark KJ (2014) Population structure over a broad spatial scale driven by nonanthropogenic factors in a wide-ranging migratory mammal, Alaskan caribou. Molecular Ecology 23: 6045-6057
  16. ↑ Colson KE, Mager KH, Hundertmark KJ (2014) Reindeer introgression and the population genetics of caribou in southwestern Alaska. Journal of Heredity 105: 585-596
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  18. ↑ Harding LE (2022) Available names for Rangifer (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Cervidae) species and subspecies. ZooKeys 1119: 117-151. doi:10.3897/zookeys.1119.80233.
  19. ↑ Richardson J (1829) Fauna boreali-americana; or, the zoology of the northern parts of British America; containing descriptions of the objects of natural history collected on the late northern land expeditions, under command of Captain Sir John Franklin, R.N. Vol. 1 Quadrupeds, John Murray, London, U.K., 300 pp.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Russell, Don E.; McNeil, P. (March 2005). Summer Ecology of the Porcupine Caribou Herd (PDF) (Report) (2 ed.). Whitehorse, Yukon: Porcupine Caribou Management Board (PCMB). This report includes detailed maps of the region.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mitchell, John (August 1, 2001). "Oil Field or Sanctuary?". National Geographic. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  22. 1 2 Kolpashikov, L.; Makhailov, V.; Russell, D. (2014). "The role of harvest, predators and socio-political environment in the dynamics of the Taimyr wild reindeer herd with some lessons for North America". Ecology and Society. 20. doi: 10.5751/ES-07129-200109 .
  23. ↑ "About". Porcupine Caribou Management Board (PCMB). Whitehorse, Yukon.
  24. 1 2 "Porcupine Caribou Harvest Management Plan Annual Harvest Meeting 2018" (PDF). Dawson City, Yukon. February 14, 2018.
  25. ↑ "Agreement Between the Government of the United States and the government of Canada on the Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd" (PDF). New York. 1987.
  26. 1 2 United Nations. Agreement Between the Government of the United States and the government of Canada on the Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd New York: UNU. 1987.
  27. ↑ "Cox, R. Environmental Communication and the Public Sphere, 2013, Sage Publications"
  28. 1 2 Morin, Philippe (January 4, 2018). "Porcupine caribou numbers 'highest ever recorded'". CBC News. Retrieved March 21, 2018. 'It's a positive, shining light in the caribou world,' says Yukon biologist
  29. ↑ Burger, Joel. "Adequate science: Alaska's Arctic refuge". Conservation Biology 15 (2): 539.
  30. ↑ United States. 96th Congress. "Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act". Fws.gov < "ANILCA Table of Contents". Archived from the original on 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2008-08-28.>. Retrieved on 2008-8-10.
  31. ↑ Shankman, Sabrina (December 2, 2017). "12 House Republicans Urge Congress to Cut ANWR Oil Drilling from Tax Bill". InsideClimate News .
  32. ↑ Natter, Ari; Dlouhy, Jennifer A. (2017-12-19). "Tax Bill Opens Arctic Refuge for Oil, But Years of Delay May Follow". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 2017-12-20.
  33. ↑ Shankman, Sabrina (November 16, 2017). "At Stake in Arctic Refuge Drilling Vote: Money, Wilderness and a Way of Life". InsideClimate News .
  34. ↑ Scott Detrow, Senate May Approve Drilling In Alaskan Wilderness With Tax Bill, NPR (November 18, 2017).
  35. 1 2 Solomon, Christopher (November 16, 2017). "The ANWR Drilling Rights in the Tax-Reform Bill". Outside.
  36. ↑ Shogren, Elizabeth (November 10, 2005). "For 30 Years, a Political Battle Over Oil and ANWR". NPR . All Things Considered . Retrieved March 21, 2018.
  37. ↑ "Potential Oil Production from the Coastal Plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Updated Assessment". US DOE. Archived from the original on 3 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  38. ↑ Smithson, Brandi; Jjumba, Anthony (2006), "Threats to the Porcupine Caribou Herd", Simon Fraser University (SFU), Atlas of the Porcupine Caribou, retrieved March 21, 2018
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