Queen Charlotte Fault

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Tectonic map of Alaska and northwestern Canada showing main faults and historic earthquakes Alaska earthquakes.jpg
Tectonic map of Alaska and northwestern Canada showing main faults and historic earthquakes

The Queen Charlotte Fault is an active transform fault that marks the boundary of the North American plate and the Pacific plate. [1] [2] It is Canada's right-lateral strike-slip equivalent to the San Andreas Fault to the south in California. [3] The Queen Charlotte Fault forms a triple junction south with the Cascadia subduction zone and the Explorer Ridge (the Queen Charlotte triple junction). The Queen Charlotte Fault (QCF) forms a transpressional plate boundary, and is as active as other major transform fault systems (i.e. San Andreas, Alpine) in terms of slip rates and seismogenic potential. [4] It sustains the highest known deformation rates among continental or continent-ocean transform systems globally, accommodating greater than 50mm/yr dextral offset. [5] The entire approximately 900 km offshore length has ruptured in seven greater than magnitude 7 events during the last century, making the cumulative historical seismic moment release higher than any other modern transform plate boundary system. [6]

Contents

The fault is named for the Queen Charlotte Islands (now Haida Gwaii) which lie just north of the triple junction. The Queen Charlotte Fault continues northward along the Alaskan coast where it is called the Fairweather Fault. [7] The two segments are collectively called the Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault System.

Fault orientation and plate motion

The junction of the Queen Charlotte, Fairweather, and Transition faults is located at the southeastern tip of the Yakutat block, an oceanic plateau and microplate. [8] The southern boundary of the QCF is marked by the complex Pacific–North American–Explorer triple junction off the coast of southern British Columbia. [8] The Queen Charlotte Fault continues northward along the Alaskan coast where it is called the Fairweather Fault. The two segments are collectively called the Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault System. The current state of transpressive plate boundary systems results from spatial and temporal changes between both rheologic and kinematic parameters. From north to south, there is a decreasing rate of convergence [8] and change in fault obliquity which appears to divide the fault into at least three distinct kinematic zones [2] along strike with associated changes in seafloor morphology, fault structure, and seismicity. [3] We have the northern, central and southern segments with maximum obliquity (approximately 15°-20°) occurring south of 53.2°N and minimum obliquity (less than 5°) occurring north of 56°N. Existing geophysical data suggest abrupt transitions in deformation mechanisms and plate boundary dynamics across these boundaries with incipient underthrusting and strain partitioning in the south along Haida Gwaii, [9] distributed transpression in the central segment, [8] and highly localized strike-slip deformation in the north. [5] There are various mechanisms proposed to accommodate oblique convergence along the QCF, this include underthrusting and strain partitioning, [2] crustal thickening, [10] and distributed shear. [3] [8] Through geologic time, a change in pacific plate motion beginning as recently as approximately 6 Ma [11] or as early as approximately 12 Ma [12] caused an increase in convergence along the entire length of the fault and initiated underthrusting [13] along the southern segment where convergence is highest, [2] a process that ultimately led to the 2012 Haida Gwaii thrust earthquake. [14]

Crustal deformation along strike

Southern segment

Crustal deformation via strain partitioning likely dominates the southern segment, [15] [16] [8] as evidenced by the thrust mechanism of the 2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake, [17] where geoscientists observed downwarping and normal faulting on the Pacific plate west of Haida Gwaii. [18] This hypothesis is also supported by the morphology of the Queen Charlotte Terrace, an approximately 30 km-wide deformed accretionary prism-like complex west of the main QCF trace. [19] Several recent studies based on seismicity, GPS observations of coseismic and postseismic deformation, and thermal modeling support the presence of a shallow plate boundary thrust. [20] [21] [22] [23]

Central segment

In the central segment, abrupt changes in both seafloor morphology and structural geometry accompany a decrease in convergence angle. The Queen Charlotte Terrace widens and deepens, forming a series of oblique ridges and basins west of the QCF main trace. [24] [8] There is a distinct structural transition due to a change in the stress regime from pure shear in the southern QCF segment to simple shear in the central QCF segment as a result of convergence decreasing below a critical angle of approximately 15°. [8]

Northern segment

In the northern segment, which bore the epicenter of the strike-slip 2013 Craig earthquake, bathymetric data suggests that the ridge-basin complex gives way to simpler fault morphology. [5] Deformation largely occurs on what appears to be a single strike-slip structure. [5] The same location also marks earthquake rupture boundaries between the 2013 Craig event [25] and the 1972 M7.6 Sitka event, [26] [27] as well as the inferred intersection of the Chatham Strait Fault and the Aja Fracture Zone (FZ) with the Queen Charlotte Fault; the Aja FZ also marks an approximately 3 million year contrast in Pacific plate crustal age. [2] Accommodation of strike-slip plate motion along a narrow deformation zone is consistent with focal mechanisms determined for the Craig event and its aftershocks. [28] Combined with other observations along the fault, this behavior implies that there may be a critical angle of obliquity within the simple shear regime at which distributed shear across multiple structures is not sustainable, and deformation can be more easily accommodated on a single structure.The fault has been the source of large, very large, and great earthquakes.

Significant earthquakes along the fault

Date M DamageArticle
1929~7
19498.1Landslides, housing and infrastructure damage, oil tank collapse 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake
19587.8Landslide, megatsunami (524 m), housing and infrastructure destruction, 5 casualties 1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami
19707.4Landslides
19905.3Minor
20016.3Minor
20046.8Land slippage
20086.5Minor
20096.6Minor
20127.8Temporary desiccation of hot springs,

1 casualty (indirect)

 2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake
20137.6Minor 2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake
20146.0 Undersea fiber-optic cable damage, causing widespread telecommunications outages 2014 Palma Bay earthquake

Six large earthquakes have occurred along the Queen Charlotte Fault within the last hundred years: a magnitude 7 event in 1929, a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake since the 1700 Cascadia earthquake), a magnitude 7.8 in 1958, a magnitude 7.4 in 1970, a magnitude 7.8 in 2012, and a magnitude 7.6 in 2013. [4]

The P nodal focal mechanism for the 1949 earthquake indicates a virtually pure strike-slip movement with a northwest-striking nodal plane corresponding to the strike of the fault. [4] This is similar to the 1970 earthquake, which also showed a strike-slip movement with a small but significant thrust component, consistent with relative plate motion. The 1949 earthquake was larger than the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, causing nearly a 500 kilometer-long segment of the Queen Charlotte Fault to break.

The 1958 earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8 and led to a major landslide in Lituya Bay, Alaska. This resulted in a 1,720-foot (524-meter) tsunami that crashed into a mountainside, the largest ever recorded tsunami run-up. [29]

The 2012 magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck off the western coast of Haida Gwaii at around 8:10pm Pacific Time on Saturday 27 October. This was the biggest quake in Canadian territory since 1949. Aftershocks as large as 6.3 magnitude were reported. A 45-cm tsunami was reported locally. Alerts were sent across the Pacific Basin. [30] This earthquake did not have any major impacts, except for the temporary desiccation of the hotsprings on Hotspring Island. The springs seemed to have returned to borderline normal functioning as of July 2014. [31]

The 2012 quake was remarkable for having been a thrust, rather than strike-slip, tremor, more like the mechanism of the Cascadia subduction zone to the south. [32] Recent detailed seafloor mapping has revealed the expression of the Queen Charlotte Fault on the seafloor, [33] including the truncation of submarine canyons that occur along the continental slope. [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

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The Cascadia subduction zone is a 960 km (600 mi) fault at a convergent plate boundary, about 100–200 km (70–100 mi) off the Pacific coast, that stretches from northern Vancouver Island in Canada to Northern California in the United States. It is capable of producing 9.0+ magnitude earthquakes and tsunamis that could reach 30 m (98 ft). The Oregon Department of Emergency Management estimates shaking would last 5–7 minutes along the coast, with strength and intensity decreasing further from the epicenter. It is a very long, sloping subduction zone where the Explorer, Juan de Fuca, and Gorda plates move to the east and slide below the much larger mostly continental North American plate. The zone varies in width and lies offshore beginning near Cape Mendocino, Northern California, passing through Oregon and Washington, and terminating at about Vancouver Island in British Columbia.

The 1999 Hector Mine earthquake occurred in Southern California, United States, on October 16 at 02:46:50 PDT. Its moment magnitude was 7.1 and the earthquake was preceded by 12 foreshocks, the largest of which had a magnitude of 3.8. The event is thought to have been triggered by the 1992 Landers earthquake which occurred seven years earlier. It also deformed nearby faults vertically and horizontally. The earthquake's hypocenter was at a depth of 20 kilometers and its epicenter at 34.603° N 116.265° W.

In seismology, a supershear earthquake is an earthquake in which the propagation of the rupture along the fault surface occurs at speeds in excess of the seismic shear wave (S-wave) velocity. This causes an effect analogous to a sonic boom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2001 Kunlun earthquake</span> 2001 earthquake in western China

An earthquake occurred in China on 14 November 2001 at 09:26 UTC, with an epicenter near Kokoxili, close to the border between Qinghai and Xinjiang in a remote mountainous region. With a magnitude of 7.8 Mw, it was the most powerful earthquake in China for 5 decades. No casualties were reported, presumably due to the very low population density and the lack of high-rise buildings. This earthquake was associated with the longest surface rupture ever recorded on land, ~450 km.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1861 Sumatra earthquake</span> Natural disaster in Indonesia

The 1861 Sumatra earthquake occurred on 16 February and was the last in a sequences of earthquakes that ruptured adjacent parts of the Sumatran segment of the Sunda megathrust. It caused a devastating tsunami which led to several thousand fatalities. The earthquake was felt as far away as the Malay peninsula and the eastern part of Java. The rupture area for the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake is similar to that estimated for the 1861 event.

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The 1881 Nicobar Islands earthquake occurred at about 07:49 local time on 31 December, with an epicentre beneath Car Nicobar. It occurred as two separate ruptures, the largest of which had an estimated magnitude of 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale and triggered a tsunami that was observed around the Bay of Bengal. It is probably the earliest earthquake for which rupture parameters have been estimated instrumentally.

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The 2002 Sumatra earthquake occurred at 01:26 UTC on 2 November. It had a magnitude of 7.4 on the moment magnitude scale with an epicenter just north of Simeulue island and caused three deaths. This earthquake is regarded as a foreshock of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which had an epicenter about 60 km to the northwest.

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The 1838 San Andreas earthquake is believed to be a rupture along the northern part of the San Andreas Fault in June 1838. It affected approximately 100 km of the fault, from the San Francisco Peninsula to the Santa Cruz Mountains. It was a strong earthquake, with an estimated moment magnitude of 6.8 to 7.2, making it one of the largest known earthquakes in California. The region was lightly populated at the time, although structural damage was reported in San Francisco, Oakland, and Monterey. It is unknown whether there were fatalities. Based on geological sampling, the fault created approximately 1.5 meters of slip.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake</span> Earthquake in Alaska and British Columbia

The 2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake struck on January 5, at 12:58 am (UTC–7) near the city of Craig and Hydaburg, on Prince of Wales Island. The Mw 7.5 earthquake came nearly three months after an Mw  7.8 quake struck Haida Gwaii on October 28, in 2012. The quake prompted a regional tsunami warning to British Columbia and Alaska, but it was later cancelled. Due to the remote location of the quake, there were no reports of casualties or damage.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Earthquake cycle</span> Natural phenomenon

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The 1979 Saint Elias earthquake affected Alaska at 12:27 AKST on 28 February. The thrust-faulting Mw 7.5 earthquake had an epicenter in the Granite Mountains. Though the maximum recorded Modified Mercalli intensity was VII, damage was minimal and there were no casualties due to the remoteness of the faulting. Damage also extended across the border in parts of Yukon, Canada.

References

  1. ↑ Trehu, A. M.; Scheidhauer, M.; Rohr, K. M. M.; Tikoff, B.; Walton, M. A. L.; Gulick, S. P. S.; Roland, E. C. (2015-03-03). "An Abrupt Transition in the Mechanical Response of the Upper Crust to Transpression along the Queen Charlotte Fault". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1114–1128. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1114T. doi:10.1785/0120140159. hdl: 2152/43270 . ISSN   0037-1106. S2CID   128679814.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Walton, M. A. L.; Gulick, S. P. S.; Haeussler, P. J.; Roland, E. C.; Trehu, A. M. (2015-04-14). "Basement and Regional Structure Along Strike of the Queen Charlotte Fault in the Context of Modern and Historical Earthquake Ruptures". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1090–1105. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1090W. doi:10.1785/0120140174. hdl: 2152/43271 . ISSN   0037-1106. S2CID   59376353.
  3. 1 2 3 Rohr, K. M. M.; Tryon, A. J. (2010). "Pacific-North America plate boundary reorganization in response to a change in relative plate motion: Offshore Canada". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 11 (6). Bibcode:2010GGG....11.6007R. doi: 10.1029/2009GC003019 . ISSN   1525-2027. S2CID   129230105.
  4. 1 2 3 Yue, Han; Lay, Thorne; Freymueller, Jeffrey T.; Ding, Kaihua; Rivera, Luis; Ruppert, Natalia A.; Koper, Keith D. (November 2013). "Supershear rupture of the 5 January 2013 Craig, Alaska ( M w 7.5) earthquake: 2013 CRAIG EARTHQUAKE SUPERSHEAR RUPTURE". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 118 (11): 5903–5919. doi:10.1002/2013JB010594. S2CID   3754158.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Brink, U. S. ten; Miller, N. C.; Andrews, B. D.; Brothers, D. S.; Haeussler, P. J. (2018). "Deformation of the Pacific/North America Plate Boundary at Queen Charlotte Fault: The Possible Role of Rheology". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 123 (5): 4223–4242. Bibcode:2018JGRB..123.4223T. doi:10.1002/2017JB014770. hdl: 1912/10462 . ISSN   2169-9356. S2CID   133742253.
  6. ↑ Bostwick, T. (1984). A re-examination of the August 22, 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake.
  7. ↑ Brothers, Daniel S.; Miller, Nathaniel C.; Barrie, J. Vaughn; Haeussler, Peter J.; Greene, H. Gary; Andrews, Brian D.; Zielke, Olaf; Watt, Janet; Dartnell, Peter (2020-01-15). "Plate boundary localization, slip-rates and rupture segmentation of the Queen Charlotte Fault based on submarine tectonic geomorphology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 530: 115882. Bibcode:2020E&PSL.53015882B. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115882 . hdl: 10754/660310 . ISSN   0012-821X. S2CID   210615976.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trehu, A. M.; Scheidhauer, M.; Rohr, K. M. M.; Tikoff, B.; Walton, M. A. L.; Gulick, S. P. S.; Roland, E. C. (2015-05-01). "An Abrupt Transition in the Mechanical Response of the Upper Crust to Transpression along the Queen Charlotte Fault". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1114–1128. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1114T. doi:10.1785/0120140159. hdl: 2152/43270 . ISSN   0037-1106. S2CID   128679814.
  9. ↑ Barrie, J. Vaughn; Conway, Kim W.; Harris, Peter T. (2013-08-01). "The Queen Charlotte Fault, British Columbia: seafloor anatomy of a transform fault and its influence on sediment processes". Geo-Marine Letters. 33 (4): 311–318. Bibcode:2013GML....33..311B. doi:10.1007/s00367-013-0333-3. ISSN   1432-1157. S2CID   128409033.
  10. ↑ Hyndman, R. D.; Hamilton, T. S. (1993-08-10). "Queen Charlotte Area Cenozoic tectonics and volcanism and their association with relative plate motions along the northeastern Pacific Margin". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 98 (B8): 14257–14277. Bibcode:1993JGR....9814257H. doi:10.1029/93JB00777.
  11. ↑ Doubrovine, Pavel V.; Tarduno, John A. (2008). "Linking the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene Pacific plate and the Atlantic bordering continents using plate circuits and paleomagnetic data". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 113 (B7). Bibcode:2008JGRB..113.7104D. doi: 10.1029/2008JB005584 . ISSN   2156-2202.
  12. ↑ DeMets, C; Merkouriev, S (2016-11-01). "High-resolution reconstructions of Pacific–North America plate motion: 20 Ma to present". Geophysical Journal International. 207 (2): 741–773. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggw305 . ISSN   0956-540X.
  13. ↑ Bustin, A. M. M.; Hyndman, R. D.; Kao, H.; Cassidy, J. F. (2007-12-01). "Evidence for underthrusting beneath the Queen Charlotte Margin, British Columbia, from teleseismic receiver function analysis". Geophysical Journal International. 171 (3): 1198–1211. Bibcode:2007GeoJI.171.1198B. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03583.x . ISSN   0956-540X.
  14. ↑ Bird, Alison L.; Cassidy, John F.; Kao, Honn; Leonard, Lucinda J.; Allen, Trevor I.; Nykolaishen, Lisa; Dragert, Herb; Hobbs, Tiegan E.; Farahbod, Amir M. (2016-02-01), "The October 2012 magnitude (Mw) 7.8 earthquake offshore Haida Gwaii, Canada", Bulletin of the International Seismological Centre, 49 (7–12), Thatcham, UK: International Seismological Centre: 41–72, doi:10.5281/zenodo.999242, S2CID   199107488 , retrieved 2021-11-24
  15. ↑ Hyndman, R. D.; Rogers, G. C. (1981). "Seismicity surveys with ocean bottom seismographs off western Canada". Journal of Geophysical Research. 86 (B5): 3867. Bibcode:1981JGR....86.3867H. doi:10.1029/JB086iB05p03867. ISSN   0148-0227.
  16. ↑ Bérubé, Joane; Rogers, Garry C.; Ellis, Robert M.; Hasselgren, Elizabeth O. (1989). "A microseismicity study of the Queen Charlotte Islands region". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 26 (12): 2556–2566. Bibcode:1989CaJES..26.2556B. doi:10.1139/e89-218.
  17. ↑ Lay, Thorne; Ye, Lingling; Kanamori, Hiroo; Yamazaki, Yoshiki; Cheung, Kwok Fai; Kwong, Kevin; Koper, Keith D. (2013-08-01). "The October 28, 2012 Mw 7.8 Haida Gwaii underthrusting earthquake and tsunami: Slip partitioning along the Queen Charlotte Fault transpressional plate boundary". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 375: 57–70. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.05.005. ISSN   0012-821X.
  18. ↑ Rohr, K. M. M. (2015-04-14). "Plate Boundary Adjustments of the Southernmost Queen Charlotte Fault". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1076–1089. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1076R. doi:10.1785/0120140162. ISSN   0037-1106.
  19. ↑ Riedel, M.; Yelisetti, S.; Papenberg, C.; Rohr, K.M.M.; Côté, M.M.; Spence, G.D.; Hyndman, R.D.; James, T. (2020-12-23). "Seismic velocity structure of the Queen Charlotte terrace off western Canada in the region of the 2012 Haida Gwaii Mw 7.8 thrust earthquake". Geosphere. 17 (1): 23–38. doi: 10.1130/GES02258.1 . ISSN   1553-040X.
  20. ↑ Wang, K.; He, J.; Schulzeck, F.; Hyndman, R. D.; Riedel, M. (2015-04-07). "Thermal Condition of the 27 October 2012 Mw 7.8 Haida Gwaii Subduction Earthquake at the Obliquely Convergent Queen Charlotte Margin". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1290–1300. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1290W. doi:10.1785/0120140183. ISSN   0037-1106.
  21. ↑ Farahbod, A. M.; Kao, H. (2015-04-07). "Spatiotemporal Distribution of Events during the First Week of the 2012 Haida Gwaii Aftershock Sequence". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1231–1240. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1231F. doi:10.1785/0120140173. ISSN   0037-1106.
  22. ↑ Kao, H.; Shan, S.-J.; Farahbod, A. M. (2015-04-07). "Source Characteristics of the 2012 Haida Gwaii Earthquake Sequence". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1206–1218. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1206K. doi:10.1785/0120140165. ISSN   0037-1106.
  23. ↑ Nykolaishen, L.; Dragert, H.; Wang, K.; James, T. S.; Schmidt, M. (2015-04-07). "GPS Observations of Crustal Deformation Associated with the 2012 Mw 7.8 Haida Gwaii Earthquake". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1241–1252. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1241N. doi:10.1785/0120140177. ISSN   0037-1106.
  24. ↑ Rohr, Kristin M. M.; Scheidhauer, Maren; Trehu, Anne M. (2000-04-10). "Transpression between two warm mafic plates: The Queen Charlotte Fault revisited". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 105 (B4): 8147–8172. Bibcode:2000JGR...105.8147R. doi: 10.1029/1999JB900403 .
  25. ↑ Yue, Han; Lay, Thorne; Freymueller, Jeffrey T.; Ding, Kaihua; Rivera, Luis; Ruppert, Natalia A.; Koper, Keith D. (November 2013). "Supershear rupture of the 5 January 2013 Craig, Alaska ( M w 7.5) earthquake: 2013 CRAIG EARTHQUAKE SUPERSHEAR RUPTURE". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 118 (11): 5903–5919. doi:10.1002/2013JB010594. S2CID   3754158.
  26. ↑ Schell, Melissa M.; Ruff, Larry J. (1989-04-15). "Rupture of a seismic gap in southeastern Alaska: the 1972 Sitka earthquake (Ms 7.6)". Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 54 (3): 241–257. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(89)90246-X. hdl: 2027.42/27965 . ISSN   0031-9201.
  27. ↑ Plafker, George; Moore, J. Casey; Winkler, Gary R. (1994-01-01). "Geology of the southern Alaska margin". The Geology of Alaska. pp. 389–449. doi:10.1130/DNAG-GNA-G1.389. ISBN   0813752191.
  28. ↑ Holtkamp, S.; Ruppert, N. (2015-04-07). "A High Resolution Aftershock Catalog of the Magnitude 7.5 Craig, Alaska, Earthquake on 5 January 2013". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 105 (2B): 1143–1152. Bibcode:2015BuSSA.105.1143H. doi:10.1785/0120140179. ISSN   0037-1106.
  29. ↑ "Earthquake Hazards in Southeastern Alaska". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2021-03-07.
  30. ↑ CBC Newsworld, "7.7 Magnitude Quake Breaking News Special", airdate: 27–28 October 2012
  31. ↑ Haida Gwaii's Hotsprings Island showing signs of recovery
  32. ↑ Goldfinger, Chris; Ikeda, Yasutaka; Yeats, Robert S. (December 3, 2012). "Superquakes, supercycles, and global earthquake clustering: Recent research and recent quakes reveal surprises in major fault systems". EARTH Magazine.
  33. ↑ Barrie, J. Vaughn; Conway, Kim W.; Harris, Peter T. (2013). "The Queen Charlotte Fault, British Columbia: Seafloor anatomy of a transform fault and its influence on sediment processes". Geo-Marine Letters. 33 (4): 311–318. Bibcode:2013GML....33..311B. doi:10.1007/s00367-013-0333-3.
  34. ↑ Harris, Peter T.; Barrie, J. Vaughn; Conway, Kim W.; Greene, H. Gary (2014). "Hanging canyons of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada: Fault-control on submarine canyon geomorphology along active continental margins". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 104: 83–92. Bibcode:2014DSRII.104...83H. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.06.017.

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