Rhizopogon

Last updated

Rhizopogon
Rhizopogon rubescens.jpg
Rhizopogon rubescens
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Rhizopogonaceae
Genus: Rhizopogon
Fr. (1817)
Type species
Rhizopogon luteolus
Fr. & Nordholm (1817)

Rhizopogon is a genus of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes in the family Rhizopogonaceae. Species form hypogeous sporocarps commonly referred to as "false truffles". The general morphological characters of Rhizopogon sporocarps are a simplex or duplex peridium surrounding a loculate gleba that lacks a columnella. Basidiospores are produced upon basidia that are borne within the fungal hymenium that coats the interior surface of gleba locules. The peridium is often adorned with thick mycelial cords, also known as rhizomorphs, that attach the sporocarp to the surrounding substrate. The scientific name Rhizopogon is Greek for 'root' (Rhiz-) 'beard' (-pogon) and this name was given in reference to the rhizomorphs found on sporocarps of many species.

Contents

Rhizopogon species are primarily found in ectomycorrhizal association with trees in the family Pinaceae and are especially common symbionts of pine, fir, and Douglas fir trees. Through their ectomycorrhizal relationships Rhizopogon are thought to play an important role in the ecology of coniferous forests. Recent micromorphological and molecular phylogenetic study has established that Rhizopogon is a member of the Boletales, closely related to Suillus . [1]

Taxonomy and diversity

A sporocarp of Rhizopogon luteolus (=obtextus) showing rhizomorphs with adhering substrate 2009-09-17 Rhizopogon obtextus 76099.jpg
A sporocarp of Rhizopogon luteolus (=obtextus) showing rhizomorphs with adhering substrate

Historical classification

The genus Rhizopogon occurs throughout the natural and introduced ranges of family Pinaceae trees. Though this range covers much of the northern temperate zones, the diversity of Rhizopogon species is well characterized only in North America and Europe. There are currently over 150 recognized species of Rhizopogon. The morphology of Rhizopogon species is highly cryptic and characters vary greatly throughout sporocarp maturity. This has led to the description of multiple species from various developmental stages of a single fungus.

The genus Rhizopogon was first described from Europe by Elias Magnus Fries in 1817. [2] The North American monograph was produced by Alexander H. Smith in 1966 [3] with second author credits given posthumously to Sanford Myron Zeller due to his contributions to the study of the genus. A European monograph of Rhizopogon has also been published. [4] In the recent past, molecular phylogenetic methods have allowed the revision of the taxonomic concepts of the genus Rhizopogon [5]

Modern classification

Modern taxonomic concepts of the genus Rhizopogon recognize five subgenera of Rhizopogon. [5] These are subgenus Rhizopogon , subgenus Versicolores , subgenus Villosuli , subgenus Amylopogon , and subgenus Roseoli .

Ecology

A sporocarp of Rhizopogon roseolus in cross section showing a close up of the gleba locules 2010-05-14 Rhizopogon roseolus 2.jpg
A sporocarp of Rhizopogon roseolus in cross section showing a close up of the gleba locules

Mammalian diet and spore dispersal

Rhizopogon species have been established as a common component in the diet of many small mammals [6] [7] as well as deer [8] in Western North America. The viability of Rhizopogon spores is maintained [9] [10] and may even be increased after mammalian gut passage, [9] making mammals an important dispersal vector for Rhizopogon.

Disturbance ecology

Rhizopogon species are common members of the fungal communities that colonize the roots of trees during seedling establishment and persist into old growth stands. [11] [12] Rhizopogon spores are long lived in soil and the spores of some species can persist for at least four years with an increase in viability over time. [13] Rhizopogon seems to be especially common upon the roots of establishing tree seedlings following disturbance such as fire [14] or logging. [15] Rhizopogon are also abundant colonizers of pot cultivated [14] [16] [17] [18] and field cultivated [14] conifer seedlings growing in soil from conifer stands that lacked observations of Rhizopogon upon the roots of mature trees. These finding suggest that Rhizopogon species are an important factor in the recovery of conifer forests following disturbance.

Invasive facilitator

Rhizopogon species have been shown to have a global distribution in the Homogenocene. [19] [3] [20] The enzymes exuded from some species within the subgenus Amylopogon is essential in activating seed germination in some species of Monotropoideae, [21] such as Pterspora andromedeae . This makes Rhizopogon an obligatory host to species like P. andromedeae. The exoenzymatic activity also confers higher competitive advantages to host species, [22] [23] mainly within the genus Pinus, by helping to break down nutrients within the soil. The presence of Rhizopogon in soil facilitates Pinus as an invasive species. [24] This exoenzymatic activity is nitrogen limited. [22] In the case of subgenus Amylopogon parasitized by P. andromedeae the nitrogen cost of exoenzymatic production is in part paid for by bacteria within the family Burkholderiaceae that is hosted by P. andromedeae [25]

Species

Ethnomycology

Forestry

The first intentional use of Rhizopogon species in forestry occurred in the early part of the 20th century when Rhizopogon luteolus was deliberately introduced into Pinus radiata plantations in Western Australia after it was observed to improve tree growth. [26] Since that time, Rhizopogon species have been widely studied as a component of managed forests. Rhizopogon species have been noted as common members of the ectomycorrhizal community colonizing tree roots of pine and Douglas-fir timber plantations. [27] Naturally occurring Rhizopogon roseolus (=rubescens) spores have been shown to out-compete the spores of other ectomycorrhizal fungi in pine plantations even when competing spores were directly inoculated onto seedlings. [23] The survival rate and performance of pine [28] and Douglas-fir [29] plantation seedlings are increased after inoculation with Rhizopogon species.

Gastronomy

Though this genera is considered edible, most members are not held in high culinary esteem. [30] A notable exception is Rhizopogon roseolus (=rubescens) which is considered a delicacy in Japan where it is traditionally known as shōro. [31] Techniques for the commercial cultivation of this fungus in pine plantations have been developed and applied with successful results in Japan and New Zealand. [31]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycorrhiza</span> Fungus-plant symbiotic association

A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, its root system. Mycorrhizae play important roles in plant nutrition, soil biology, and soil chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Truffle</span> Fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus

A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, one of the species of the genus Tuber. More than one hundred other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including Geopora, Peziza, Choiromyces, and Leucangium. These genera belong to the class Pezizomycetes and the Pezizales order. Several truffle-like basidiomycetes are excluded from Pezizales, including Rhizopogon and Glomus. Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi, so they are found in close association with tree roots. Spore dispersal is accomplished through fungivores, animals that eat fungi. These fungi have ecological roles in nutrient cycling and drought tolerance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russulaceae</span> Family of fungi in the order Russulales

The Russulaceae are a diverse family of fungi in the order Russulales, with roughly 1,900 known species and a worldwide distribution. They comprise the brittlegills and the milk-caps, well-known mushroom-forming fungi that include some edible species. These gilled mushrooms are characterised by the brittle flesh of their fruitbodies.

<i>Pterospora</i> Genus of plants

Pterospora, commonly known as pinedrops, woodland pinedrops, Albany beechdrops, or giant bird's nest, is a North American genus in the subfamily Monotropoideae of the heath family, and includes only the species Pterospora andromedea. It grows as a mycoheterotroph in coniferous or mixed forests. It is widespread across much of Canada as well as the western and northeastern United States to Mexico. Along with Monotropa it is one of the more frequently encountered genera of the Monotropoideae.

<i>Lactarius</i> Genus of fungi

Lactarius is a genus of mushroom-producing, ectomycorrhizal fungi, containing several edible species. The species of the genus, commonly known as milk-caps, are characterized by the milky fluid ("latex") they exude when cut or damaged. Like the closely related genus Russula, their flesh has a distinctive brittle consistency. It is a large genus with over 500 known species, mainly distributed in the Northern hemisphere. Recently, the genus Lactifluus has been separated from Lactarius based on molecular phylogenetic evidence.

<i>Suillus luteus</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae native to Eurasia

Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus, and the type species of the genus Suillus. A common fungus native all across Eurasia from Ireland to Korea, it has been introduced widely elsewhere, including North and South America, southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English-speaking countries, its names refer to the brown cap, which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions. The fungus, initially described as Boletus luteus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is now classified in a different fungus family as well as genus. Suillus luteus is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms. It is commonly prepared and eaten in soups, stews or fried dishes. The slime coating, however, may cause indigestion if not removed before eating. It is often sold as a dried mushroom.

<i>Laccaria bicolor</i> Species of fungus

Laccaria bicolor is a small tan-colored mushroom with lilac gills. It is edible but not choice, and grows in mixed birch and pine woods. It is found in the temperate zones of the globe, in late summer and autumn. L. bicolor is an ectomycorrhizal fungus used as a soil inoculant in agriculture and horticulture.

<i>Suillus bovinus</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae native to Europe and Asia

Suillus bovinus, also known as the Jersey cow mushroom or bovine bolete, is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. A common fungus native to Europe and Asia, it has been introduced to North America and Australia. It was initially described as Boletus bovinus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, and given its current binomial name by Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1806. It is an edible mushroom, though not highly regarded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sporocarp (fungus)</span> Fungal structure on which spore-producing structures are borne

The sporocarp of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cycle, while the rest of the life cycle is characterized by vegetative mycelial growth and asexual spore production.

<i>Suillus brevipes</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae found throughout North America

Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century, it is commonly known as the stubby-stalk or the short-stemmed slippery Jack. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish-brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime, and a short whitish stipe that has neither a partial veil nor prominent, colored glandular dots. The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm, while the stipe is up to 6 cm long and 2 cm thick. Like other bolete mushrooms, S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap.

<i>Suillus spraguei</i> Species of mushroom

Suillus spraguei is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. It is known by a variety of common names, including the painted slipperycap, the painted suillus or the red and yellow suillus. Suillus spraguei has had a complex taxonomical history, and is also frequently referred to as Suillus pictus in the literature. The readily identifiable fruit bodies have caps that are dark red when fresh, dry to the touch, and covered with mats of hairs and scales that are separated by yellow cracks. On the underside of the cap are small, yellow, angular pores that become brownish as the mushroom ages. The stalk bears a grayish cottony ring, and is typically covered with soft hairs or scales.

<i>Suillus quiescens</i> Species of fungus

Suillus quiescens is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. First collected in 2002 on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of California, in association with Bishop Pine, the species was scientifically described and named in 2010. In addition to its distribution in coastal California, it was also found forming ectomycorrhizae with the roots of pine seedlings in the eastern Sierra Nevada, coastal Oregon, and the southern Cascade Mountains. It resembles Suillus brevipes, but can be distinguished from that species by its paler-colored immature cap and by the tiny colored glands on the stipe that darken with age.

<i>Suillus pungens</i> Species of fungus in the family Suillaceae found in California

Suillus pungens, commonly known as the pungent slippery jack or the pungent suillus, is a species of fungus in the genus Suillus. The fruit bodies of the fungus have slimy convex caps up to 14 cm (5.5 in) wide. The mushroom is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap throughout development. Typically, the young cap is whitish, later becoming grayish-olive to reddish-brown or a mottled combination of these colors. The mushroom has a dotted stem (stipe) up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long, and 2 cm (0.8 in) thick. On the underside on the cap is the spore-bearing tissue consisting of minute vertically arranged tubes that appear as a surface of angular, yellowish pores. The presence of milky droplets on the pore surface of young individuals, especially in humid environments, is a characteristic feature of this species. S. pungens can usually be distinguished from other similar Suillus species by differences in distribution, odor and taste. The mushroom is considered edible, but not highly regarded.

<i>Suillus collinitus</i> Species of fungus

Suillus collinitus is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae. It is an edible mushroom found in European pine forests. The mushroom has a reddish to chestnut-brown cap that reaches up to 11 cm (4.3 in) in diameter, and a yellow stem measuring up to 7 cm (2.8 in) tall by 1 to 2 cm thick. On the underside of the cap are small angular pores, initially bright yellow before turning greenish-brown with age. A characteristic feature that helps to distinguish it from similar Suillus species, such as S. granulatus, is the pinkish mycelia at the base of the stem.

<i>Spongiforma</i> Genus of fungi

Spongiforma is a genus of sponge-like fungi in the family Boletaceae. Newly described in 2009, the genus contains two species: S. thailandica and S. squarepantsii. The type species S. thailandica is known only from Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand, where it grows in soil in old-growth forests dominated by dipterocarp trees. The rubbery fruit bodies, which has a strong odour of coal-tar similar to Tricholoma sulphureum, consists of numerous internal cavities lined with spore-producing tissue. S. squarepantsii, described as new to science in 2011, is found in Malaysia. It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies with a fruity or musky odour. These fruit bodies will—like a sponge—resume their original shape if water is squeezed out. The origin of the specific name derives from its perceived resemblance to the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants. Apart from differences in distribution, S. squarepantsii differs from S. thailandica in its colour, odour, and spore structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ectomycorrhiza</span> Non-penetrative symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

An ectomycorrhiza is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobiont, and the roots of various plant species. The mycobiont is often from the phyla Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, and more rarely from the Zygomycota. Ectomycorrhizas form on the roots of around 2% of plant species, usually woody plants, including species from the birch, dipterocarp, myrtle, beech, willow, pine and rose families. Research on ectomycorrhizas is increasingly important in areas such as ecosystem management and restoration, forestry and agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium</span>

Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium is the collection of filamentous fungal hyphae emanating from ectomycorrhizas. It may be composed of fine, hydrophilic hypha which branches frequently to explore and exploit the soil matrix or may aggregate to form rhizomorphs; highly differentiated, hydrophobic, enduring, transport structures.

<i>Rhizopogon occidentalis</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopogon occidentalis is an ectomycorrhizal fungus in the family Rhizopogonaceae of the Basidiomycota. It occurs most commonly in western North America in association with two-needle and three-needle pine hosts. They are false truffles with fruiting bodies that are yellow on the surface and pale yellow inside. Their edibility is disputed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycorrhiza helper bacteria</span> Group of organisms

Mycorrhiza helper bacteria (MHB) are a group of organisms that form symbiotic associations with both ectomycorrhiza and arbuscular mycorrhiza. MHBs are diverse and belong to a wide variety of bacterial phyla including both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Some of the most common MHBs observed in studies belong to the phylas Pseudomonas and Streptomyces. MHBs have been seen to have extremely specific interactions with their fungal hosts at times, but this specificity is lost with plants. MHBs enhance mycorrhizal function, growth, nutrient uptake to the fungus and plant, improve soil conductance, aid against certain pathogens, and help promote defense mechanisms. These bacteria are naturally present in the soil, and form these complex interactions with fungi as plant root development starts to take shape. The mechanisms through which these interactions take shape are not well-understood and needs further study.

<i>Rhizopogon salebrosus</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopogon salebrosus is a mushroom species within the Rhizopogon subgenus Amylopogon. R.salebrosus is a monotropoid mycorrhiza that is of vital importance to the ecology of conifer forests, especially in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Although it is native to North America, R. salebrosus has been found in Europe and its range is generally limited to mountainous regions with sufficient precipitation. The mycoheterotrophic plant, Pterospora andromedea is often found in an obligate association with R. salebrosus in western parts of the U.S. Eastern populations of P. andromedea are typically symbiotic with another Rhizopogon sub species, R. kretzerae.

References

  1. ↑ Manfred Binder & David S. Hibbett (2006). "Molecular systematics and biological diversification of Boletales". Mycologia . 98 (6): 971–981. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.971. PMID   17486973.
  2. ↑ Fries, Elias Magnus (1817). Symbolae Gasteromycorum. Lundae: Ex officina Berlingiana.
  3. 1 2 Smith AH, Zeller SM (1966). "A Preliminary Account of the North American Species of Rhizopogon". Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden. 14 (2): 1–178.
  4. ↑ Martín, MP (1996). The Genus Rhizopogon in Europe. Barcelona, Spain: BCG. pp. 173 p. ISBN   8992161700.
  5. 1 2 Grubisha LC, Trappe JM, Molina R, Spatafora JW (2002). "Biology of the ectomycorrhizal genus Rhizopogon. VI. Re-examination of infrageneric relationships inferred from phylogenetic analyses of ITS sequences". Mycologia . 94 (4): 607–619. doi:10.2307/3761712. JSTOR   3761712. PMID   21156534.
  6. ↑ Maser C, Maser Z (1988). "Interactions among squirrels, mycorrhizal fungi, and coniferous forests in Oregon". Western North American Naturalist. 48 (3): 358–369.
  7. ↑ Izzo AD, Meyer M, Trappe JM, North M, Bruns TD (2005). "Hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungal species on roots and in small mammal diet in a mixed conifer forest". Forest Science. 51 (3): 243–254.
  8. ↑ Ashkannehhad S, Horton TR (2006). "Ectomycorrhizal ecology under primary succession on coastal sand dunes: interactions involving Pinus contorta, suilloid fungi and deer". New Phytologist . 169 (2): 345–354. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01593.x . PMID   16411937.
  9. 1 2 Colgan III W, Claridge AW (2002). "Mycorrhizal effectiveness of Rhizopogon spores recovered from faecal pellets of small forest-dwelling mammals". Mycological Research . 106 (3): 314–320. doi:10.1017/S0953756202005634.
  10. ↑ Kotter M, Farentinos RC (1984). "Formations of Ponderosa pine ectomycorrhizae after inoculation with feces of tassel-eared squirrels". Mycologia . 76 (2): 758–760. doi:10.2307/3793237. JSTOR   3793237.
  11. ↑ Twieg BD, Durall DM, Simard SW (2007). "Ectomycorrhizal fungal succession in mixed temperate forests". New Phytologist . 176 (2): 437–447. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02173.x. PMID   17888121.
  12. ↑ Molina, R; Trappe, JM; Grubisha, LC; Spatafora, JW (1999). "Rhizopogon". In Cairney, JWG; Chambers, SM (eds.). Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Key Genera in Profile. Heidelberg: Springer Berlin. pp. 129–161. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06827-4_5. ISBN   978-3-642-08490-4.
  13. ↑ Bruns, TD; Peay KG; Boynton PJ; Grubisha LC; Hynson NA; Nguyen NH; Rosenstock NP (2009). "Inoculum potential of Rhizopogon spores increases with time over the first 4 yr of a 99-yr spore burial experiment". New Phytologist . 181 (2): 463–470. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02652.x . PMID   9121040.
  14. 1 2 3 Baar J.; Horton T.R.; Kretzer A.M.; Bruns T.D. (1999). "Mycorrhizal colonization of Pinus muricata from resistant propagules after a stand-replacing wildfire". New Phytologist . 143 (2): 409–418. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00452.x.
  15. ↑ Luoma DL, Stockdale CA, Molina R, Eberhart JL (2006). "The spatial influence of Pseudotsuga menziesii retention trees on ectomycorrhiza diversity". Canadian Journal of Forest Research . 36 (10): 2561–2573. doi:10.1139/x06-143.
  16. ↑ Taylor DL, Bruns TD (1999). "Community structure of ectomycorrhizal fungi in a Pinus muricata forest: minimal overlap between the mature forest and resistant propagule communities". Molecular Ecology . 8 (11): 1837–1850. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00773.x. PMID   10620228. S2CID   1687794.
  17. ↑ Kjøller R, Bruns TD (2003). "Rhizopogon spore bank communities within and among California pine forests". Mycologia . 95 (4): 603–613. doi:10.2307/3761936. JSTOR   3761936. PMID   21148969.
  18. ↑ Murata M, Kinoshita A, Nara K (2013). "Revisiting the host effect on ectomycorrhizal fungal communities: implications from host–fungal associations in relict Pseudotsuga japonica forests". Mycorrhiza. 23 (8): 641–653. doi:10.1007/s00572-013-0504-0. PMID   23702643. S2CID   2303003.
  19. ↑ Pietras, Marcin (2019-06-07). "First record of North American fungus Rhizopogon pseudoroseolus in Australia and prediction of its occurrence based on climatic niche and symbiotic partner preferences". Mycorrhiza. 29 (4): 397–401. doi: 10.1007/s00572-019-00899-x . ISSN   0940-6360. PMID   31175441.
  20. ↑ Zhao, Pei‐shan; Guo, Mi‐shan; Gao, Guang‐lei; Zhang, Ying; Ding, Guo‐dong; Ren, Yue; Akhtar, Mobeen (March 2020). "Community structure and functional group of root‐associated Fungi of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica across stand ages in the Mu Us Desert". Ecology and Evolution. 10 (6): 3032–3042. doi: 10.1002/ece3.6119 . ISSN   2045-7758. PMC   7083681 . PMID   32211174.
  21. ↑ Bruns, Thomas D.; Read, David J. (2000-11-27). "In vitro germination of nonphotosynthetic, myco-heterotrophic plants stimulated by fungi isolated from the adult plants". New Phytologist. 148 (2): 335–342. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00766.x . ISSN   0028-646X.
  22. 1 2 Ning, Chen; Xiang, Wenhua; Mueller, Gregory M.; Egerton-Warburton, Louise M.; Yan, Wende; Liu, Shuguang (2019-11-16). "Differences in ectomycorrhizal community assembly between native and exotic pines are reflected in their enzymatic functional capacities". Plant and Soil. 446 (1–2): 179–193. doi:10.1007/s11104-019-04355-9. ISSN   0032-079X. S2CID   208042202.
  23. 1 2 Karkouri KE, Martin F, Mousain D (2002). "Dominance of the mycorrhizal fungus Rhizopogon rubescens in a plantation of Pinus pinea seedlings inoculated with Suillus collinitus". Annals of Forest Science. 59 (2): 197–204. doi: 10.1051/forest:2002006 .
  24. ↑ Wood, Jamie R.; Dickie, Ian A.; Moeller, Holly V.; Peltzer, Duane A.; Bonner, Karen I.; Rattray, Gaye; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (2014-12-15). "Novel interactions between non-native mammals and fungi facilitate establishment of invasive pines". Journal of Ecology. 103 (1): 121–129. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12345 . ISSN   0022-0477.
  25. ↑ Gans, Maya (2019). "Invariant Communities of Endophytic Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated with a Non-photosynthetic Plant". ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
  26. ↑ Kessel SL (1927). "Soil organisms. The dependence of certain pine species on a biological soil factor". Empire Forestry Journal. 6: 70–74.
  27. ↑ Molina R, Trappe JM (1994). "Biology of the ectomycorrhizal genus, Rhizopogon I. Host associations, host-specificity and pure culture syntheses". New Phytologist . 126 (4): 653–675. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb02961.x .
  28. ↑ Steinfield D, Amaranthus M, Cazares E (2003). "Survival of Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws) seedlings outplanted with Rhizopogon mycorrhizae inoculated with spores at the nursery". Journal of Arboriculture. 29 (4): 4197–208.
  29. ↑ Castellano MA, Trappe JM (1985). "Ectomycorrhizal formation and plantation performance of Douglas-fir nursery stock inoculated with Rhizopogon spores". Canadian Journal of Forest Research . 15 (4): 613–617. doi:10.1139/x85-100.
  30. ↑ Trappe, M; Evans; Trappe, J (2007). Field guide to North American Truffles. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. pp. 136 p. ISBN   978-1580088626.
  31. 1 2 Yun W, Hall IR (2004). "Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms: challenges and achievements". Canadian Journal of Botany . 82 (8): 1063–1073. doi:10.1139/b04-051.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.