Rubus spectabilis

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Salmonberry
Salmonberry with leaves.jpg
Rubus spectabilis 2566.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Rubus
Species:
R. spectabilis
Binomial name
Rubus spectabilis
Pursh 1813 not E.James 1825 nor Mercier 1861 [1]
Synonyms [1]
  • Parmena spectabilis(Pursh) Greene
  • Rubus franciscanusRydb.
  • Rubus spectabilis var. franciscanus(Rydb.) J.T.Howell
  • Rubus spectabilis var. menziesii(Hook.) S.Watson
  • Rubus stenopetalusCham.

Rubus spectabilis, the salmonberry, is a species of bramble in the rose family Rosaceae, native to the west coast of North America from west-central Alaska to California, inland as far as Idaho. [2] [3] [4] Like many other species in the genus Rubus , the salmonberry plant bears edible fruit, typically yellow-orange or red in color, resembling raspberries in appearance.

Contents

Description

Rubus spectabilis is a deciduous, rhizomatous shrub growing to 1–4 metres (3–13 feet) tall and 9 metres (30 feet) wide, with a moderate growth rate of 0.3–0.6 metres (12-24 inches) per year. [5] 30-40% of the plant's biomass is underground. [6] It has perennial (not biennial) woody stems that are covered with fine prickles, especially on new growth. [7] The plant has golden or yellowish brown erect or arching stems (also known as "canes") that often form thickets, like many other brambles in the genus Rubus . The leaves are alternate, trifoliate (with three leaflets), 7–22 centimetres (3–8+1⁄2 inches) long and typically ovate in shape, with the terminal leaflet being larger than the two side leaflets, which are sometimes shallowly lobed. The margins of the leaflets are doubly serrate. [8] [9] The leaves are also stipulate and are smooth to slightly hairy on the top surface, compared to the underside, which are typically more pale and hairy. [9] In late fall and winter months, salmonberry leaves will fall, and the plant remains dormant or maintains minimal shoot elongation during the winter. [10]

The flowers are 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with a calyx of five hairy sepals and five pinkish-purple petals that surround a cluster of stamens; they are produced between April and July, either singly or in clusters of 2 or 3. The flowers are perfect (bisexual), containing 75–100 stamens and many individual pistils with superior ovaries. [8] [9] While fruit production is largely dependent on the environment, there is an estimated growth of 30 fruits per 3m^2 (32 ft^2) and 17-65 seeds per fruit. [11] Salmonberry sprout mainly from the buds found on rhizomes, stumps, and root crowns of the plant. The flowers cannot self-pollinate and are instead pollinated by insects, hummingbirds, and beetles. [10]

Salmonberries ripen approximately 30–36 days after pollination, from early May to late July in most of the Pacific Northwest and July to August in cooler Northern climates. They are 1.5–2 cm (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) long and resemble large shiny yellow to orange-red raspberries. The fruit pulls away from its receptacle, differentiating it from blackberries.[ citation needed ] Botanically speaking, the salmonberry is not a true berry, but instead an aggregate fruit made of many smaller drupelets. [9] [12] The fruits of the salmonberry plant exhibit polymorphism, as berries are often either red in color or a yellow-orange color. Studies have found that although both red and yellow-orange morphs have similar physical qualities, the red berries are more commonly consumed by birds, although this is likely not a strong enough selective pressure to determine color morph distribution alone; factors such as soil type (which affects germination), along with other unstudied factors are more likely responsible for the color polymorphism. [13] [14] [15]

A similar species from Japan, the red-flowered raspberry (ベニバナイチゴ) was once considered a subspecies as R. spectabilis subsp. vernus. It is now reclassified as R. vernus. [16]

Distribution and habitat

Salmonberries are typically found in coastal areas with nitrogen-rich soils, in moist to wet forests and streambanks, increasing in abundance in areas of high rainfall and decreasing in abundance at higher elevations and continentality. Ecologically speaking, salmonberry tends to spread quickly and needs plenty of room to grow, and is often dominant and fast-growing in early-seral communities. Its size and population growth decline in abundance as the canopy begins to form, and may also be influenced by other factors such as basal area, plant disturbance, and population density. [9] [17] In open areas they often form large thickets, and are found to associate with stands of red alder ( Alnus rubra ), lady fern ( Athyrium filixfemina ), western skunk cabbage ( Lysichiton americanus ), devil's club ( Oplopanax horridus ), thimbleberry ( Rubus parviflorus ), and threeleaf foamflower ( Tiarella trifoliata ). [9]

Ecology

In the wild, the fruit are typically eaten by birds, bears, and small mammals, among others, while the leaves, twigs, and stems are grazed on by herbivores such as deer, moose, mountain goats, elk, and rabbits. [8] [7] Populations of dense thicket growth can provide escape habitats for small animals, as well as nesting sites for birds. [7]

In the spring, salmonberry flowering coincides with the migration of certain species of hummingbirds, which is crucial for its pollination. [18] Birds and mammals also help with dispersion of seeds through their feces, while rodents and other burrowing animals may further help with dispersion. Some notable mammals crucial for the dispersion of seeds are the grizzly and American black bears, which can deposit 50,000 to 100,000 seeds in one pile of feces. [14]

Salmonberry have several traits that make it highly resistant to fire. Rhizomes and root crowns below the soil surface usually survive, even if top stems are burned. Depending on burial depth, seeds also often remain unharmed. Additionally, the plant tend to quickly sprout after fires, allowing for rapid growth and regeneration. [19]

Salmonberries are susceptible to many diseases, including mildew, fruit rot, rust, root rot, and viral and bacterial diseases. Their fruits, foliage, canes, roots, and crowns may also be damaged by pests such as beetles, aphids, mites, moths, among others. [20]

Uses

Salmonberries are edible. [21] [13] The fruit has been referred to as "diverse, from bright, fruity and citrusy to deep and earthy with spicy notes" [22] and depending on ripeness and site, they are good eaten raw – whether red or golden [13] – and when processed into jam, candy, jelly and wine. Native American people ate the young shoots or used it as a medicinal plant. The shoots were harvested during April to early June before they turned woody or tough, and were peeled, then steamed, boiled, or pit-cooked, and eaten (or less commonly, eaten raw). [7] [23] Traditionally, the berries and sprouts were also eaten with salmon or mixed with oolichan grease or salmon roe. They were not dried because of their high moisture content. [7] [24] It is still used as a food source and medicinal plant in regions of Alaska today.

Other uses by Native Americans include: [7]

It is also widely grown as an ornamental plant for its flowers, [13] [25] [26] with a double-flowered clone identified in Washington and British Columbia. [27] R. spectabilis has escaped cultivation and become naturalized in parts of northwestern Europe, including Great Britain, Ireland and the Faroe Islands. [28] [29]

Culture

The salmonberry is important to multiple indigenous people of America in its native range. The Makah people call the plant ka'k'we'abupt and the berry ka'k'we; the Cowlitz people call the plant e'twanac and the berry e'twan; speakers of Lower Chinook call it yunts. [30] The Squamish people call the plant yetwánáy and the berries yetwán, the shoots are called stsá7tskaý (pronounced saskay). [31] In the Saanich dialect, it is called elile. [32] The birdsong of the Swainson's thrush, sometimes known as the salmonberry bird, is a phenological indicator known to multiple indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast to be associated with the ripening of salmonberries. The birdsong itself is even said to make the berries ripen, [31] as is the case of the Saanich people who give the birdsong the onomatopoeic translation of "xwexwelexwelexwelexwesh!" meaning "ripen, ripen, ripen, ripen!" This belief is also widespread and is known to the Tlingit, Haida, Haisla, Oweekeno, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-Chah-Nulth, Ditidaht, Sḵwx̱wú7mesh, and the Straits Salish people. The presence of Elasmostethus cruciatus , called the salmonberry bug, is also seen as an indicator to Northwest Coast indigenous peoples that salmonberry shoots are ready to harvest. [33]

Related Research Articles

<i>Rubus</i> Genus of plants in the rose family

Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, commonly known as brambles. Fruits of various species are known as raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, and bristleberries. It is a diverse genus, with the estimated number of Rubus species varying from 250 to over 1000, found across all continents except Antarctica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackberry</span> Fruit of Rubus species

The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the genus Rubus in the family Rosaceae, hybrids among these species within the subgenus Rubus, and hybrids between the subgenera Rubus and Idaeobatus. The taxonomy of blackberries has historically been confused because of hybridization and apomixis, so that species have often been grouped together and called species aggregates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dewberry</span> Type of black berry

The dewberries are a group of species in the genus Rubus, section Rubus, closely related to the blackberries. They are small trailing brambles with aggregate fruits, reminiscent of the raspberry, but are usually purple to black instead of red.

<i>Rubus chamaemorus</i> Species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae

Rubus chamaemorus is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae, native to cool temperate regions, alpine and Arctic tundra and boreal forest. This herbaceous perennial produces amber-colored edible fruit similar to the blackberry. English common names include cloudberry, Nordic berry, bakeapple, knotberry and knoutberry, aqpik or low-bush salmonberry, and averin or evron.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raspberry</span> Edible fruit

The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus. The name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems.

<i>Rubus idaeus</i> Red raspberry

Rubus idaeus is a red-fruited species of Rubus native to Europe and northern Asia and commonly cultivated in other temperate regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loganberry</span> Species of fruit and plant

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<i>Rubus phoenicolasius</i> Berry and plant

Rubus phoenicolasius is an Asian species of raspberry in the rose family, native to China, Japan, and Korea.

<i>Rubus occidentalis</i> Berry and plant

Rubus occidentalis is a species of Rubus native to eastern North America. Its common name black raspberry is shared with other closely related species. Other names occasionally used include bear's eye blackberry, black cap, black cap raspberry, and scotch cap.

<i>Rubus parviflorus</i> Berry and plant

Rubus parviflorus, the fruit of which is commonly called the thimbleberry or redcap, is a species of Rubus native to northern temperate regions of North America. The plant has large hairy leaves and no thorns. It bears edible red fruit similar in appearance to a raspberry, but shorter and almost hemispherical. It has not been commercially developed for the retail berry market, but is cultivated for landscapes.

<i>Rubus leucodermis</i> Species of plant

Rubus leucodermis, also called whitebark raspberry, blackcap raspberry, or blue raspberry, is a species of Rubus native to western North America.

<i>Rubus pensilvanicus</i> Berry and plant

Rubus pensilvanicus, known commonly as Pennsylvania blackberry, is a prickly bramble native to eastern and central North America from Newfoundland south to Georgia, west as far as Ontario, Minnesota, Nebraska, Missouri, and Arkansas. The species is also established as a naturalized plant in California.

<i>Rubus armeniacus</i> Species of fruit and plant

Rubus armeniacus, the Himalayan blackberry or Armenian blackberry, is a species of Rubus in the blackberry group Rubus subgenus Rubus series Discolores Focke. It is native to Armenia and northern Iran, and widely invasive elsewhere. Both its scientific name and origin have been the subject of much confusion, with much of the literature referring to it as either Rubus procerus or Rubus discolor, and often mistakenly citing its origin as western European. Flora of North America, published in 2014, considers the taxonomy unsettled, and tentatively uses the older name Rubus bifrons.

<i>Rubus ursinus</i> Berry and plant

Rubus ursinus is a North American species of blackberry or dewberry, known by the common names California blackberry, California dewberry, Douglas berry, Pacific blackberry, Pacific dewberry and trailing blackberry.

<i>Rubus rosifolius</i> Berry and plant

Rubus rosifolius,, also known as roseleaf bramble, Mauritius raspberry, thimbleberry,Vanuatu raspberry and bramble of the Cape is a prickly subshrub native to rainforest and tall open forest of the Himalayas, East Asia, and eastern Australia. Its double-flowered variety is named Rubus rosifolius var. coronarius.

Rubus glaucifolius is a North American species of wild raspberry known by the common name San Diego raspberry. It is native to Oregon and California, where it grows in mountain forests.

<i>Rubus pubescens</i> Berry and plant

Rubus pubescens is a herbaceous perennial widespread across much of Canada and the northern United States, from Alaska to Newfoundland, south as far as Oregon, Colorado, and West Virginia.

<i>Rubus pedatus</i> Berry and plant

Rubus pedatus is an Asian and North American species of raspberry known under the common names five-leaved bramble, strawberryleaf raspberry and creeping raspberry.

<i>Rubus flagellaris</i> Species of shrub

Rubus flagellaris, the northern dewberry, also known as the common dewberry, is a North American species perennial subshrub species of dewberry, in the rose family. This dewberry is distributed across much of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It grows in diverse habitats ranging from drier savannas to temperate deciduous forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild edible and medicinal plants of British Columbia</span>

There are numerous wild edible and medicinal plants in British Columbia that are used traditionally by First Nations peoples. These include seaweeds, rhizomes and shoots of flowering plants, berries, and fungi.

References

  1. 1 2 "Rubus spectabilis Mercier — The Plant List". www.theplantlist.org.
  2. ↑ "Biota of North America Program 2014 state-level distribution map".
  3. ↑ "Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map".
  4. ↑ Calflora taxon report, University of California, Rubus spectabilis Pursh, salmon berry, salmonberry
  5. ↑ "Salmon Berry, Rubus spectabilis". calscape.org. Retrieved 2022-10-22.
  6. ↑ Tappeiner, John; Zasada, John; Ryan, Peter; Newton, Michael (April 1991). "Salmonberry Clonal and Population Structure: The Basis for a Persistent Cover". Ecology. 72 (2): 609–618. doi:10.2307/2937201. ISSN   0012-9658. JSTOR   2937201.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "USDA Plants Database". plants.usda.gov. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
  8. 1 2 3 Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p.  419. ISBN   978-0-394-73127-8.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Plants of British Columbia: Rubus spectabilis". Linnet.geog.ubc.ca. Archived from the original on March 14, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  10. 1 2 "Rubus spectabilis". www.fs.usda.gov. Retrieved 2022-10-22.
  11. ↑ Sastry, K. Subramanya; Mandal, Bikash; Hammond, John; Scott, S. W.; Briddon, R. W. (2019), "Rubus spp. (Blackberry, Blackraspberry, Caneberry, Raspberry, Redraspberry, Wineberry)", Encyclopedia of Plant Viruses and Viroids, New Delhi: Springer India, pp. 2111–2133, doi:10.1007/978-81-322-3912-3_805, ISBN   978-81-322-3911-6, S2CID   239272713
  12. ↑ "Jepson Flora: Rubus spectabilis". Ucjeps.berkeley.edu. Retrieved December 9, 2014.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Mosquin, Daniel (23 May 2015). "Rubus spectabilis". University of British Columbia Botanical Garden. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  14. 1 2 Traveset, Anna; Willson, Mary F. (March 1998). "Ecology of the fruit-colour polymorphism in Rubus spectabilis". Evolutionary Ecology. 12 (3): 331–345. doi:10.1023/A:1006504317585. ISSN   1573-8477. S2CID   41661194.
  15. ↑ Gervais, Jennifer A.; Noon, B.; Willson, M. (1999). "Avian selection of the color-dimorphic fruits of salmonberry, Rubus spectabilis: a field experiment". Oikos. 84 (1): 77–86. doi:10.2307/3546868. JSTOR   3546868. S2CID   87682589.
  16. ↑ Naruhashi, Naruhito (June 15, 1980). "Rubus vernus FOCKE and R. spectabilis PURSH". The Journal of Phytogeography and Taxonomy (The Journal of Geobotany). 28: 13 – via ISSN 0388-6212.
  17. ↑ "Rubus spectabilis". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  18. ↑ Pojar, Jim (1974-08-01). "Reproductive dynamics of four plant communities of southwestern British Columbia". Canadian Journal of Botany. 52 (8): 1819–1834. doi:10.1139/b74-234. ISSN   0008-4026.
  19. ↑ Oleskevich, Carmen; Punja, Zamir K.; Shamoun, Simon F. (1996-01-01). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 105. Rubus strigosus Michx., Rubus parviflorus Nutt., and Rubus spectabilis Pursh". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 76 (1): 187–201. doi: 10.4141/cjps96-037 . ISSN   0008-4220.
  20. ↑ G., R. V.; Ellis, Michael A.; Converse, Richard H.; Williams, Roger N.; Williamson, Brian (November 1992). "Compendium of Raspberry and Blackberry Diseases and Insects". Mycologia. 84 (6): 953. doi:10.2307/3760307. ISSN   0027-5514. JSTOR   3760307.
  21. ↑ Fagan, Damian (2019). Wildflowers of Oregon: A Field Guide to Over 400 Wildflowers, Trees, and Shrubs of the Coast, Cascades, and High Desert. Guilford, CT: FalconGuides. p. 222. ISBN   978-1-4930-3633-2. OCLC   1073035766.
  22. ↑ Deur, Douglas (2014). Pacific Northwest Foraging: 120 Wild and Flavorful Edibles from Alaska Blueberries to Wild Hazelnuts. Timber Press. p. 175. ISBN   9781604693522.
  23. ↑ Lyons, C. P. (1956). Trees, Shrubs and Flowers to Know in Washington (1st ed.). Canada: J. M. Dent & Sons. p. 88.
  24. ↑ Pojar, Jim; MacKinnon, Andy (2004). Plants Of The Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon, British Columbia & Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing. p. 76. ISBN   978-1-55105-530-5.
  25. ↑ Mulligan, Brian O. (1977). Woody Plants in the University of Washington Arboretum, Washington Park. University of Washington, College of Forest Resources, Seattle.
  26. ↑ Mulligan, Brian O. (1963). Accession records of the University of Washington Arboretum
  27. ↑ Mosquin, Daniel (23 April 2007). "Rubus spectabilis Double-Flowered Group". University of British Columbia Botanical Garden. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  28. ↑ Inland Fisheries Ireland. "Risk Assessment of Rubus spectabilis" (PDF). nonnativespecies.ie. National Biodiversity Data Centre. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
  29. ↑ Højgaard, A. et al., eds. (1989). A century of tree-planting in the Faroe Islands. Føroya Fróðskaparfelag, Tórshavn.
  30. ↑ "Rubus spectabilis". Mount Pisgah Arboretum. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
  31. 1 2 Joseph, Leigh (24 April 2017). "The Gifts of Yetwánaý (Salmon Berry)". Leigh Joseph (Styawat), Ethnobotanist. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
  32. ↑ https://people.geog.uvic.ca/wanthony/website/geog490/NativePlantTable-1.htm
  33. ↑ Turner, Nancy J.; Reid, Andrea J. (2022-11-01). ""When the Wild Roses Bloom": Indigenous Knowledge and Environmental Change in Northwestern North America". GeoHealth. 6 (11): e2022GH000612. doi:10.1029/2022GH000612. ISSN   2471-1403. PMC   9665002 . PMID   36398276.
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