Sheehan's syndrome

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Sheehan's syndrome
Other namesSimmond's syndrome, postpartum hypopituitarism, postpartum pituitary gland necrosis
Pituitary gland-optic chiasm-sella turcica.jpg
Anatomy of normal pituitary gland and surrounding structures
Brain MRI 0077 25 - Annotation.jpg
Empty sella turcica on MRI as seen in severe cases of Sheehan's syndrome
Specialty Endocrinology, obstetrics and gynaecology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg

Sheehan's syndrome, also known as postpartum pituitary gland necrosis, occurs when the pituitary gland is damaged due to significant blood loss and hypovolemic shock (ischemic necrosis) usually during or after childbirth leading to decreased functioning of the pituitary gland (hypopituitarism). [1] The pituitary gland is an endocrine organ, meaning it produces certain hormones and is involved in the regulation of various other hormones. [2] This gland is located in the brain and sits in a pocket of the sphenoid bone known as the sella turcica. [3] The pituitary gland works in conjunction with the hypothalamus, and other endocrine organs to modulate numerous bodily functions including growth, metabolism, menstruation, lactation, and even the "fight-or-flight" response. [2] These endocrine organs release hormones in very specific pathways, known as hormonal axes. For example, the release of a hormone in the hypothalamus will target the pituitary to trigger the release of a subsequent hormone, and the pituitary's released hormone will target the next organ in the pathway. [2] Hence, damage to the pituitary gland can have downstream effects on any of the aforementioned bodily functions.

Contents

Signs and symptoms

The various signs and symptoms in Sheehan's syndrome are caused by damage to the pituitary, thereby causing a decrease in one or more of the hormones it normally secretes. Since the pituitary controls many glands in the endocrine system, partial or complete loss of a variety of functions may result. [4] Many of the signs and symptoms of Sheehan's are considered "nonspecific" in the medical community; in other words these signs and symptoms are seen in a number of different disease processes, and are not specific to a singular disease or syndrome. [5]

In some cases, a woman with Sheehan syndrome may be relatively asymptomatic initially; therefore, the diagnosis would not be made until years later when features of hypopituitarism become evident. [6] In rare instances this syndrome can present acutely with unstable vital signs, dangerously low blood glucose levels, heart failure, or even psychosis. [7] [8] Hypopituitarism can lead to an interruption in any of the following hormone pathways: thyroid disorder (secondary hypothyroidism), adrenal gland (adrenal insufficiency due to glucocorticoid deficiency), sex hormone (gonadotropin deficiency), prolactin (a hormone responsible for lactation), growth hormone, or rarely anti-diuretic hormone deficiency (central diabetes insipidus). [2] Since damage to the pituitary can cause a deficiency in more than one of these hormone pathways simultaneously, it is possible to have a mix of any of the signs or symptoms listed below. [8]

Sheehan's syndrome's most common initial symptoms are difficulties with or total absence of lactation (agalactorrhea). [6] Another common sign is infrequent menstrual cycles (oligomenorrhea) or absent menstrual cycles (amenorrhea) following delivery. [8] In addition to menstrual irregularities other signs of sex hormone deficiency are hot flashes, decreased libido, and breast involution. [5] Symptoms and signs of thyroid disorder are tiredness, intolerance to cold, constipation, weight gain, hair loss, slowed thinking, as well as a slowed heart rate and low blood pressure. [9] Adrenal gland malfunction can present acutely or chronically. In a more chronic case, it is similar to Addison's disease with symptoms including fatigue, weight loss, hypoglycemia (low blood sugar levels), low hemoglobin levels (anemia) and hyponatremia (low sodium levels) that develop over several months or years. [10] Acute adrenal insufficiency is referred to as an adrenal crisis, which can be life-threatening, and occurs very shortly after the inciting event i.e. significant blood loss post-partum in the context of Sheehan's syndrome. [11] Adrenal crisis signs and symptoms include hypoglycemia, hypotension, weakness, fatigue, and seizures from severe hyponatremia. [11]

Growth hormone deficiency is one of the most common hormone deficiencies of hypopituitarism seen in Sheehan's syndrome. [9] Low levels of growth hormone may present with low energy, body aches, or subtle wrinkling of the skin around the eyes or mouth. [5] [7] The symptoms of anti-diuretic hormone deficiency are increased thirst, excessive urination, headache, and fatigue. [12] Hematological changes might be seen as well such as anemia or low platelets (thrombocytopenia). [9] Hyponatremia is seen in many cases of Sheehan's syndrome because it can result from multiple etiologies. Drops in thyroid hormones and glucocorticoid/adrenal hormones can indirectly lead to hyponatremia through water retention, while blood loss can trigger hyponatremia through ADH secretion. [7] The development of Syndrome of Inappropriate Anti-Diuretic Hormone in patients with Sheehan's syndrome has been documented in the literature, although the mechanism is not well understood. [7]

Causes

As stated, Sheehan's syndrome is caused by damage to the pituitary, thereby causing a decrease in one or more of the hormones it normally secretes. Sheehan's syndrome typically occurs because of excessive blood loss after delivery (post-partum hemorrhage), although there are several risk factors that may contribute to its development. [8] This syndrome does not appear to be exclusively linked to childbirth, as Sheehan's syndrome has been reported in pregnant patients that experienced massive hemorrhage from non-obstetrical causes. [8] The pituitary gland grows and has a higher metabolic demand during pregnancy because the pituitary needs to rev up the production of certain hormones associated with pregnancy. [8] [4] This higher metabolic demand, in turn, leads to higher demand for blood flow. [4]

Thus, if the body enters a state of shock from excessive blood loss in post-partum delivery, the pituitary gland is more susceptible to injury. [4] Although the vast majority of cases of Sheehan's syndrome occur in the setting of massive blood loss, cases have been documented of acute Sheehan's syndrome occurring with blood loss volumes that are not considered "massive". [13] [4] Some possible predisposing factors to Sheehan's syndrome may include: disseminated blood coagulation (DIC), hypotension, small sella turcica size, and blood clots from a pre-existing hypercoagulable disorder. [8] Atony of the uterus is a leading cause of post-partum hemorrhage, therefore uterine atony could induce Sheehan's syndrome. [14]

Pathophysiology

This syndrome seems to arise when certain factors compound each other to cause pituitary injury. The physiologic enlargement of the pituitary gland in conjunction with an interference in its blood supply ultimately result in pituitary ischemia and necrosis. [8] One cause of pituitary growth associated with the risk of Sheehan's syndrome is the hyperplasia of lactotrophs which produce prolactin, the hormone responsible for milk production. [4] Other hormone-secreting cells of the pituitary undergo rapid growth in pregnant women as well, which contribute to the gland's enlargement. [9]

The anterior pituitary is supplied by a low pressure portal venous system. [14] The anterior pituitary is more commonly affected in Sheehan's syndrome because of the structure of the portal venous system. Posterior pituitary involvement leading to central diabetes insipidus is much rarer, and typically reflects more extensive damage to the organ and more severe disease. [12] It has been suggested that the arrangement of the pituitary's blood supply contribute to its susceptibility for injury. "The highly vascularized pituitary tissue involves one of the most rapid blood flow in the human body and probably, therefore, has a tendency to infarction because even small degrees of change in the pituitary intravascular pressure cause an arrest of blood flow". [8] Ischemia may occur as a result of vasospasm from shock, hypotension, thrombosis, or direct vascular compression of the hypophyseal artery from the enlarged pituitary gland itself. [8] [4] [14] The presence of disseminated intravascular coagulation (i.e., in amniotic fluid embolism or HELLP syndrome) also appears to be a factor in its development. [8]

Diagnosis

Typically an important clue that leads to a diagnosis of Sheehan's syndrome is identifying a deficiency in one or more of the hormones produced directly, or indirectly, by the pituitary gland. The extent of hormone deficiency, and which hormones are affected depends on the extent of the damage to the pituitary. Hormonal assays measure the levels of these hormones which include but are not limited to T4, TSH, estrogen, gonadotropin, cortisol, and ACTH. [7] It might be difficult to detect damage to these hormone pathways if hormone levels are at the borderline of the abnormal range. In this case, stimulation tests will be done to determine if the pituitary is responsive to hypothalamic hormones. [14]

MRI is useful in diagnosing Sheehan's syndrome since it examines the structure of the pituitary and may identify any anatomical damage. [4] MRI findings will vary based on how early or late in the disease process the test is being conducted. If an MRI is conducted early enough in the disease process the pituitary may appear larger than normal, and show changes that are consistent with damage from lack of blood supply. [15] Later in the disease process of this syndrome the damage imposed on the pituitary gland will cause it to shrink, and leave a partially empty or totally empty sella turcica on MRI. [7]

Treatment

The mainstay of treatment is hormone replacement therapy for the hormones that are missing. [16] Treatment plans and dosages should be individualized by an endocrinologist. Glucocorticoids may be administered to address or prevent an adrenal crisis, a potential serious complication of Sheehan's syndrome. [4] Hormone replacement is vital in reducing the morbidity and mortality of this syndrome. [4]

Epidemiology

The exact prevalence of this syndrome is difficult to define because the incidence varies so much from country to country. Sheehan syndrome is more prevalent in developing countries than developed countries. [14] In a study from the United Kingdom in 2001 only 1.4% of patients with hypopituitarism were diagnosed with Sheehan's syndrome. [5] Just a few years earlier in 1996 the World Health Organization estimated that 3 million women were effected by Sheehan's syndrome. [8] In a study of 1,034 symptomatic adults, Sheehan's syndrome was found to be the sixth-most frequent etiology of growth hormone deficiency, being responsible for 3.1% of cases (versus 53.9% due to a pituitary tumor). [7] Additionally, it was found that the majority of women who experienced Sheehan syndrome gave birth at home rather than in a hospital. [14]

History

The specific association with postpartum shock or hemorrhage was described in 1937 by the British pathologist Harold Leeming Sheehan (1900–1988). [17] The initial distinction was made in the research article "Post-Partum Necrosis of the Anterior Pituitary". [18] In his research, Dr. Sheehan reviewed (through autopsy) the effects of pituitary necrosis on 12 cases of patients that experienced postpartum necrosis. [18] He observed cases where lesions and death occurred during or after pregnancy, as well as cases where death occurred in the late stage of necrosis (years later). This started the initial distinction of Sheehan's syndrome from Simmonds' disease (also known as hypopituitarism). Sheehan noted that significant feature of these patients' cases was hemorrhaging, which in his experience was most commonly caused by either: placenta Previa (low placenta), uterine rupture, cervical or uterine tears, post-partum atony, or retained placenta. Simmonds' disease, however, occurs in either sex due to causes unrelated to pregnancy. [14]

However, in his 1939 publication, "Simmonds' Disease due to Post-partum Necrosis of the Anterior Pituitary", Sheehan displays post-partum necrosis as a cause of Simmonds' disease, thus establishing the relationship between the two conditions. [19] According to Sheehan in 1939 approximately 41% of survivors of severe postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) and/or hypovolemic shock experienced severe or partial hypopituitarism. [14]

Society and culture

In the developed world Sheehan's Syndrome is a rare complication of pregnancy; although this syndrome is more prevalent in developing countries it continues to effect women around the world. [8] A retrospective study in Turkey found that the prevalence of Sheehan's syndrome was directly proportional to the amount of at-home deliveries each decade. [7] This may be due to previously limited obstetric techniques present in a home environment. Blood loss associated with episiotomy and forceps exacerbating blood loss when the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus, particularly in mothers with low blood pressure, even in obstetric setting, namely hospital, caused a more subtle Sheehan's syndrome of Growth Hormone, Anti-Duretic Hormone, ACTH deficiency, which may be life threatening if missed; PubMed.gov Sheehan's in modern times:a nationwide retrospective study Iceland 2011, where every mother gives birth in hospital, with full obstetric care available.

Research

At present, the part that autoimmunity plays in the development of Sheehan's syndrome is uncertain. Several case reports have identified anti-pituitary antibodies in patients diagnosed with Sheehan's. [4] Some patients also tested positive for anti-hypothalamus antibodies. [20] Given that many patients that have developed Sheehan's syndrome do not have detectable levels of these antibodies, it is unclear whether these antibodies cause this syndrome or result from it. [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine system</span> Hormone-producing glands of a body

The endocrine system is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenocorticotropic hormone</span> Pituitary hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress. Its principal effects are increased production and release of cortisol and androgens by the cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland, respectively. ACTH is also related to the circadian rhythm in many organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cushing's syndrome</span> Symptoms from excessive exposure to glucocorticoids such as cortisol

Cushing's syndrome is a collection of signs and symptoms due to prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids such as cortisol. Signs and symptoms may include high blood pressure, abdominal obesity but with thin arms and legs, reddish stretch marks, a round red face due to facial plethora, a fat lump between the shoulders, weak muscles, weak bones, acne, and fragile skin that heals poorly. Women may have more hair and irregular menstruation. Occasionally there may be changes in mood, headaches, and a chronic feeling of tiredness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anterior pituitary</span> Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe makes up the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes, including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation. Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Addison's disease</span> Endocrine disorder

Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency, is a rare long-term endocrine disorder characterized by inadequate production of the steroid hormones cortisol and aldosterone by the two outer layers of the cells of the adrenal glands, causing adrenal insufficiency. Symptoms generally come on slowly and insidiously and may include abdominal pain and gastrointestinal abnormalities, weakness, and weight loss. Darkening of the skin in certain areas may also occur. Under certain circumstances, an adrenal crisis may occur with low blood pressure, vomiting, lower back pain, and loss of consciousness. Mood changes may also occur. Rapid onset of symptoms indicates acute adrenal failure, which is a clinical emergency. An adrenal crisis can be triggered by stress, such as from an injury, surgery, or infection.

Cushing's disease is one cause of Cushing's syndrome characterised by increased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. This is most often as a result of a pituitary adenoma or due to excess production of hypothalamus CRH that stimulates the synthesis of cortisol by the adrenal glands. Pituitary adenomas are responsible for 80% of endogenous Cushing's syndrome, when excluding Cushing's syndrome from exogenously administered corticosteroids. The equine version of this disease is Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenal insufficiency</span> Medical condition

Adrenal insufficiency is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce adequate amounts of steroid hormones. The adrenal glands—also referred to as the adrenal cortex—normally secrete glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens. These hormones are important in regulating blood pressure, electrolytes, and metabolism as a whole. Deficiency of these hormones leads to symptoms ranging from abdominal pain, vomiting, muscle weakness and fatigue, low blood pressure, depression, mood and personality changes to organ failure and shock. Adrenal crisis may occur if a person having adrenal insufficiency experiences stresses, such as an accident, injury, surgery, or severe infection; this is a life-threatening medical condition resulting from severe deficiency of cortisol in the body. Death may quickly follow.

Corticotropes are basophilic cells in the anterior pituitary that produce pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) which undergoes cleavage to adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), β-lipotropin (β-LPH), and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). These cells are stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and make up 15–20% of the cells in the anterior pituitary. The release of ACTH from the corticotropic cells is controlled by CRH, which is formed in the cell bodies of parvocellular neurosecretory cells within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and passes to the corticotropes in the anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system. Adrenocorticotropin hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and plays an important role in the stress response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypopituitarism</span> Medical condition

Hypopituitarism is the decreased (hypo) secretion of one or more of the eight hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. If there is decreased secretion of one specific pituitary hormone, the condition is known as selective hypopituitarism. If there is decreased secretion of most or all pituitary hormones, the term panhypopituitarism is used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pituitary adenoma</span> Human disease

Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland. Most pituitary tumors are benign, approximately 35% are invasive and just 0.1% to 0.2% are carcinomas. Pituitary adenomas represent from 10% to 25% of all intracranial neoplasms and the estimated prevalence rate in the general population is approximately 17%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine gland</span> Glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones to blood

Endocrine glands are ductless glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testicles, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are neuroendocrine organs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypoaldosteronism</span> Medical condition

Hypoaldosteronism is an endocrinological disorder characterized by decreased levels of the hormone aldosterone. Similarly, isolated hypoaldosteronism is the condition of having lowered aldosterone without corresponding changes in cortisol.

Nelson's syndrome is a disorder that occurs in about one in four patients who have had both adrenal glands removed to treat Cushing's disease. In patients with pre-existing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary adenomas, loss of adrenal feedback following bilateral adrenalectomy can trigger the rapid growth of the tumor, leading to visual symptoms and hyperpigmentation. The severity of the disease is dependent upon the effect of ACTH release on the skin, pituitary hormone loss from mass compression, as well as invasion into surrounding structures around the pituitary gland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency</span> Medical condition

Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency is a rare disorder characterized by secondary adrenal insufficiency with minimal or no cortisol production and normal pituitary hormone secretion apart from ACTH. ACTH deficiency may be congenital or acquired, and its symptoms are clinically similar to those of glucocorticoid deficiency. Symptoms consist of weight loss, diminished appetite, muscle weakness, nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Low blood sugar and hyponatremia are possible; however, blood potassium levels typically remain normal because affected patients are deficient in glucocorticoids rather than mineralocorticoids because of their intact renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. ACTH may be undetectable in blood tests, and cortisol is abnormally low. Glucocorticoid replacement therapy is required. With the exception of stressful situations, some patients with mild or nearly asymptomatic disease may not require glucocorticoid replacement therapy. As of 2008 about two hundred cases have been described in the literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypophyseal portal system</span> System of blood vessels

The hypophyseal portal system is a system of blood vessels in the microcirculation at the base of the brain, connecting the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary. Its main function is to quickly transport and exchange hormones between the hypothalamus arcuate nucleus and anterior pituitary gland. The capillaries in the portal system are fenestrated which allows a rapid exchange between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. The main hormones transported by the system include gonadotropin-releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone–releasing hormone, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone.

Pituitary apoplexy is bleeding into or impaired blood supply of the pituitary gland. This usually occurs in the presence of a tumor of the pituitary, although in 80% of cases this has not been diagnosed previously. The most common initial symptom is a sudden headache, often associated with a rapidly worsening visual field defect or double vision caused by compression of nerves surrounding the gland. This is often followed by acute symptoms caused by lack of secretion of essential hormones, predominantly adrenal insufficiency.

Autoimmune hypophysitis is defined as inflammation of the pituitary gland due to autoimmunity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenal crisis</span> Medical condition

Adrenal crisis is a potentially life-threatening medical condition requiring immediate emergency treatment. It is a constellation of symptoms that indicate severe adrenal insufficiency. This may be the result of either previously undiagnosed or untreated Addison's disease, a disease process that suddenly affects adrenal function, suddenly stopping intake of glucocorticoids or an intercurrent problem in someone known to have Addison's disease, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), or another form of primary adrenal insufficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypophysitis</span> Medical condition

Hypophysitis refers to an inflammation of the pituitary gland. Hypophysitis is rare and not fully understood.

Hypothalamic disease is a disorder presenting primarily in the hypothalamus, which may be caused by damage resulting from malnutrition, including anorexia and bulimia eating disorders, genetic disorders, radiation, surgery, head trauma, lesion, tumour or other physical injury to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the control center for several endocrine functions. Endocrine systems controlled by the hypothalamus are regulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), corticotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone-releasing hormone, oxytocin, all of which are secreted by the hypothalamus. Damage to the hypothalamus may impact any of these hormones and the related endocrine systems. Many of these hypothalamic hormones act on the pituitary gland. Hypothalamic disease therefore affects the functioning of the pituitary and the target organs controlled by the pituitary, including the adrenal glands, ovaries and testes, and the thyroid gland.

References

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  3. ↑ Chapman PR, Singhal A, Gaddamanugu S, Prattipati V (November 2020). "Neuroimaging of the Pituitary Gland: Practical Anatomy and Pathology". Radiologic Clinics of North America. 58 (6): 1115–1133. doi:10.1016/j.rcl.2020.07.009. PMID   33040852. S2CID   222299889.
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  10. ↑ "Addison's disease - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
  11. 1 2 Elshimy G, Chippa V, Jeong JM (2022). Adrenal Crisis. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID   29763143 . Retrieved 2023-01-25.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
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  13. ↑ Matsuzaki S, Endo M, Ueda Y, Mimura K, Kakigano A, Egawa-Takata T, et al. (June 2017). "A case of acute Sheehan's syndrome and literature review: a rare but life-threatening complication of postpartum hemorrhage". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 17 (1): 188. doi: 10.1186/s12884-017-1380-y . PMC   5471854 . PMID   28615049.
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  16. ↑ Errarhay S, Kamaoui I, Bouchikhi C, Châara H, Bouguern H, Tizniti S, et al. (June 2009). "Sheehan's Syndrome A Case Report and Literature Review". The Libyan Journal of Medicine. 4 (2): 81–82. doi:10.4176/081201. PMC   3066722 . PMID   21483515.
  17. ↑ Sheehan HL (January 1965). "The Repair of Post-Partum Necrosis of the Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland". Acta Endocrinologica. 48 (1): 40–60. doi:10.1530/acta.0.0480040. PMID   14254773.
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  19. ↑ Cooke RT (October 1945). "Simmonds's Disease due to Post-partum Necrosis of Anterior Pituitary". British Medical Journal. 2 (4423): 493–494. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a069138. PMC   2059949 . PMID   20786336.
  20. ↑ De Bellis A, Kelestimur F, Sinisi AA, Ruocco G, Tirelli G, Battaglia M, et al. (February 2008). "Anti-hypothalamus and anti-pituitary antibodies may contribute to perpetuate the hypopituitarism in patients with Sheehan's syndrome". European Journal of Endocrinology. 158 (2): 147–152. doi: 10.1530/EJE-07-0647 . PMID   18230820. S2CID   24922671.
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