Tarnished plant bug

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Tarnished plant bug
Tarnished Plant Bug.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Family: Miridae
Genus: Lygus
Species:
L. lineolaris
Binomial name
Lygus lineolaris

The tarnished plant bug (TPB), Lygus lineolaris, is a species of plant-feeding insect in the family Miridae. It has piercing-sucking mouthparts and has become a serious pest on small fruits and vegetables in North America. It is considered a highly polyphagous species and feeds on over half of all commercially grown crop plants, but favors cotton, alfalfa, beans, stone fruits, and conifer seedlings. [1] A study done in southwestern Quebec, Canada has investigated the presence of L. lineolaris in a commercial vineyard. [2] This study also indicated that weeds that grow from cultivation of crops serve as an important food source for L. lineolaris. This insect can be found across North America, from northern Canada to southern Mexico. Adults grow up to 6.5 mm in length, and are brown with accents of yellow, orange or red, with a light-colored "V" on the back (dorsal). [3] The genome has recently been sequenced for the first time. [4]

Contents

Distribution and diversity

Lygus lineolaris is most commonly found in the eastern half of North America. [5] A study done to track the genetic diversity and overall distribution of L. lineolaris, specifically on host plants, in North America sampled three separate populations of L. lineolaris and marked their DNA with mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase 1 and cytochrome oxidase 2. [5] The researchers wanted to examine whether the genetic differences found between L. lineolaris species were based on geographical factors. [5] The results indicated significant differences in mtDNA among L. lineolaris species found across North America. [5] Other evidence indicated that L. lineolaris species were found consistently on the same plant hosts but showed no specific preference for plant hosts. [5]

The presence of L. lineolaris has been documented in vineyards in Quebec. The results of the Fleury et al. (2010) study indicated that L. lineolaris adults prefer to over-winter in apple orchards because more adults were found inside of the vineyard during winter months. In the summer months (mid-June), the adult L. lineolaris numbers decreased inside of the vineyard because of the decrease in apples and appearance of flowers. [2] Another study observing whether geographical origin has an effect on fecundity, survivorship, hatch rate, and developmental time reported that geographical differences had no effect on the four factors. [6]

Pollen analysis has been used as another method of measuring dispersal in L. lineolaris. [7] Researchers used pollen grains as indicators of food sources being utilized by L. lineolaris as well as their movement between wild host plant habitats and cropping areas. The pollen grains found through analysis indicated that they were from host plants of L. lineolaris. The pollen grains further indicated that L. lineolaris spent time away from crops and instead were found on plants that were in wet or disturbed sites. [7]

Close-up of the mouthparts of Lygus lineolaris Plant bug, dod, pomonkey 2015-05-24-19.05.37 ZS PMax (18086359811).jpg
Close-up of the mouthparts of Lygus lineolaris

Feeding

Although it is known to feed on almost all commercial crops,L. lineolaris specifically prefers to feed on young apples and weeds. [2] The TPB has a special mode of feeding called the "lacerate and flush" feeding strategy where it uses sucking mouthparts to inject saliva into the host plant. The saliva of the TPB contains an enzyme called polygalacturonase which degrades plant tissue and pectin in the plant cell wall allowing for faster digestion. [8] Researchers interested in examining other components of L. lineolaris saliva used illumina (Solexa) sequencing to discover the roles of proteins within saliva. They accomplish this via presenting a salivary gland transcriptome of the TPB. The researchers discovered TPB sialotranscriptome that played a role in extra-oral digestion. [8]

Reproduction

A Lygus lineolaris nymph Lygus lineolaris.jpg
A Lygus lineolaris nymph

L. lineolaris utilize cotton plants as one of their main reproductive hosts. Females lay eggs in the first row of cotton plants and later occupy more plants in the field. [7] The females usually lay eggs in May after the overwintering period. The eggs hatch and nymphs begin to develop around June. [9] The highest population level of L. lineolaris is typically marked in October and June, and it is seen to also trigger a rise in the population level of Pisaurina mira , a nursery web spider that preys on L. lineolaris. [10]

Olfaction

Researchers have conducted experiments involving odourant-binding proteins (OBP) which allow for perception of odours in L. lineolaris and other insect groups. A study involved transcriptomics in order to investigate olfaction in L. lineolaris to reduce its harmful impacts on commercial crops. [11] The transcriptomics approach indicated that there are 21 LylinOBP transcripts in the antennae, 12 in the legs and 15 in the proboscis. This further identified that these structures play an important role in insect olfaction and taste. Since the antennae are mainly responsible for direction, the presence of olfaction in the antennae can allow for recognition of different substrates. The proboscis is mainly associated with taste therefore the OBP expression in the proboscis and maxillary palp sensilla may be associated with taste in L. lineolaris.

Vision

The visual system in L. lineolaris is not heavily investigated although it could provide insight into the different stimuli that allow these insects to discriminate food sources. A study investigated whether L. lineolaris adults showed distinctive visual responses to two different colours of sticky traps. [12] The researchers decided to use pink and white sticky traps due to previous evidence indicating that pink sticky traps are the most stimulating for L. lineolaris specifically in peach orchards. L. lineolaris were attracted to pink traps as compared with white traps. L. lineolaris have the ability to discriminate colour to an extent and could even detect colour contrast. The pink colour could have provided a better contrast against the peach-coloured background thereby attracting more L. lineolaris adults. [12]

Capturing methods

There are numerous methods used to capture L. lineolaris in order to utilize these insects in scientific studies. Some studies involve capturing the TPB using traps. Researchers used white sticky traps in order to capture TPB in and around a Canadian vineyard. [2] Compared to other methods, sticky traps have been shown to be the most effective in collecting L. lineolaris. [12] Other traps involve using a bed sheet tied with a nylon rope around two metal poles to capture adult TPB. [7] This method requires the use of an eppendorf tube to collect individual TPB for euthanizing purposes. Since adult L. lineolaris have been recorded to fly at about 40 to 100 cm above the ground in vineyards as well as other cultivated fruit crops, traps must be laid out at a height between 40 and 100 cm in order to capture the maximum amount of insects. Sticky traps have been proven to capture L. lineolaris most effectively. [2]

Although traps are widely used to collect TPB, sweep nets are also effective in capturing these insects due their small size and tendency to rest on plant leaves. [9] The sweep net method was specifically used for nymphal L. lineolaris. Another study used sweep nets to capture L. lineolaris individuals off wild host plants while also using aspirators to place them into collection containers. [6]

Control

Insecticides and herbicides

Growers routinely make 3–5 applications of insecticides each year to control this insect. Considering the narrow profit margin for today's farmers, the cost of such applications are significant. In the United States, there has been a total of 38% loss of cotton crops due to TPB population. There are approximately 4.1 insecticide applications per hectare annually in the U.S with an estimated cost of $110 per hectare. [6] The increasing cost for insecticides for control of TPB is due to insecticide resistance that occurs in this population due to improper time management when spraying insecticide. [13] L. lineolaris rely on weeds growing among cultivated crops in order to overwinter therefore application of herbicides on these weeds would serve as an effective control for these insects. [2] To control L. lineolaris population on strawberry plants, methods including insecticides have been used but recently biological controls are being implemented. [14]

Because numerous applications of insecticides are used for annual control of L. lineolaris population, there are studies done to examine the proper time period for these applications. One such study by Wood et al. (2016) examined different planting dates in order to determine the optimal time for TPB control on cotton plants. [13] The results obtained from the study indicated that the first four weeks of flowering were the most effective in controlling for L. lineolaris because this is when most cotton yield loss was observed. [13] The researchers discovered through their results that it is more effective to terminate the insecticide earlier than to delay the administration of the insecticide at the beginning of the four-week period.

Neonicotinoids are a family of insecticides which cause interference and blockage of the nicotinergic pathway in the central nervous system of insects. [15] Imidacloprid is part of the neonictinoid family and has been used to control population of L. lineolaris. Previously, a study has been conducted to examine the resistance developed by the TPB to imidacloprid. [15] The results of the study indicated that there were changes in gene expression which was related to resistance of imidacloprid. There was an over-expression of P450 and esterase genes which the researchers connected to imidacloprid resistance by L. lineolaris.

A similar study investigating L. lineolaris from two geographical regions in terms of differing developmental time, fecundity, hatch rate, and survivorship was conducted. The researchers were interested in examining the reasons for L. lineolaris being a more influential pest in the Delta region as compared with the Hills region of the Mississippi. [6] Although there were no differences found in the development time, fecundity, hatch rate, and survivorship of the L. lineolaris captured from the Delta and Hills regions, the researchers suggest that the larger area of the Delta region might have caused the L. lineolaris population to be subjected to more insecticides thereby having more resistance and causing more pest-related issues. [6]

Biological control

In the mid 1980s, parasitic wasps, Peristenus digoneutis, were imported from France and their establishment[ clarification needed ] in the northeastern United States has resulted in reduction of crop losses to the TPB of up to 63% in alfalfa and 65% in apples. [3] The University of Vermont Entomology Laboratory studied various entomopathogenic fungi for pathogenicity against TPB. [16] The fungus Beavaria bassiana is sometimes used to control TPB. [17] Research has been conducted to determine the rate of parasitism by B. bassiana of L. lineolaris in strawberry and alfalfa host plants. [14] The research, conducted in Iowa, suggested that L. lineolaris have a detrimental impact on strawberry fruits because feeding damage allows for a decrease in the market value of strawberries. [14]

Physical control

Mowing and maintenance of weed plants can control the population of L. lineolaris adults within crop fields and vineyards. [2] Rainfall can be classified as a form of mechanical control of L. lineolaris because rain drops may knock individuals off plants and cause a reduction in their survival. [9] The results from a study investigating the effects of rainfall on the nymphal population of L. lineolaris indicated that the number of nymphs decreased during the heavy rainfall years. During the years with heavy rainfall, there was also less parasitism of L. lineolaris by the parasitoid wasp P. digoneutis. Due to their results that rainfall decreases L. lineolaris population, the researchers suggested that sprinkler irrigation should be used in alfalfa fields because it simulates rainfall.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insecticide</span> Pesticide used against insects

Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Acaricides, which kill mites and ticks, are not strictly insecticides, but are usually classified together with insecticides. The major use of Insecticides is agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden, industrial buildings, vector control and control of insect parasites of animals and humans. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whitefly</span> Family of insects

Whiteflies are Hemipterans that typically feed on the undersides of plant leaves. They comprise the family Aleyrodidae, the only family in the superfamily Aleyrodoidea. More than 1550 species have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imidacloprid</span> Chemical compound

Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal pathway. By blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, this insecticide is more toxic to insects than to mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silverleaf whitefly</span> Species of true bug

The silverleaf whitefly is one of several species of whitefly that are currently important agricultural pests. A review in 2011 concluded that the silverleaf whitefly is actually a species complex containing at least 40 morphologically indistinguishable species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Miridae</span> Family of true bugs

The Miridae are a large and diverse insect family at one time known by the taxonomic synonym Capsidae. Species in the family may be referred to as capsid bugs or "mirid bugs". Common names include plant bugs, leaf bugs, and grass bugs. It is the largest family of true bugs belonging to the suborder Heteroptera; it includes over 10,000 known species, and new ones are being described constantly. Most widely known mirids are species that are notorious agricultural pests that pierce plant tissues, feed on the sap, and sometimes transmit viral plant diseases. Some species however, are predatory.

<i>Lygus</i> Genus of insects

The genus Lygus includes over 40 species of plant-feeding insects in the family Miridae. The term lygus bug is used for any member of genus Lygus.

Neonicotinoids are a class of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine, developed by scientists at Shell and Bayer in the 1980s.

A trap crop is a plant that attracts agricultural pests, usually insects, away from nearby target crops. This form of companion planting can save a target crop from decimation by pests without the use of artificial pesticides. A trap crop is used for attracting the insect and pests away from a target crop field. Many trap crops have successfully diverted pests from focal crops in small scale greenhouse, garden and field experiments; a small portion of these plants have been shown to reduce pest damage at larger commercial scales. A common explanation for reported trap cropping failures, is that attractive trap plants only protect nearby plants if the insects do not move back into the target crop. In a review of 100 trap cropping examples in 2006, only 10 trap crops were classified as successful at a commercial scale, and in all successful cases, trap cropping was supplemented with management practices that specifically limited insect dispersal from the trap crop back into the target crop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitenpyram</span> Insecticide

Nitenpyram is a chemical frequently used as an insecticide in agriculture and veterinary medicine. The compound is an insect neurotoxin belonging to the class of neonicotinoids which works by blocking neural signaling of the central nervous system. It does so by binding irreversibly to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nACHr) causing a stop of the flow of ions in the postsynaptic membrane of neurons leading to paralysis and death. Nitenpyram is highly selective towards the variation of the nACHr which insects possess, and has seen extensive use in targeted, insecticide applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoxacarb</span> Chemical compound

Indoxacarb is an oxadiazine pesticide developed by DuPont that acts against lepidopteran larvae. It is marketed under the names Indoxacarb Technical Insecticide, Steward Insecticide and Avaunt Insecticide. It is also used as the active ingredient in the Syngenta line of commercial pesticides: Advion and Arilon.

<i>Adelphocoris lineolatus</i> Species of true bug

Adelphocoris lineolatus, is commonly known as the Lucerne bug or the alfalfa plant bug, and belongs to the family Miridae. It is an agricultural pest causing vast amounts of damage to numerous crops, but primarily to alfalfa crops around the globe.

<i>Myzus persicae</i> Aphid of peach, potato, other crops

Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid, greenfly, or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid belonging to the order Hemiptera. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shrivelling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It also acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), potato virus Y (PVY) and tobacco etch virus (TEV). Potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus can be passed to members of the nightshade/potato family (Solanaceae), and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops.

<i>Stenotus binotatus</i> Species of true bug

Stenotus binotatus is a species of plant bug, originally from Europe, but now also established across North America and New Zealand. It is 6–7 mm (0.24–0.28 in) long, yellowish, with darker markings on the pronotum and forewings. It feeds on various grasses, and can be a pest of crops such as wheat.

<i>Lygus pratensis</i> Species of true bug

Lygus pratensis is a species of plant bug belonging to the family Miridae.

Lygus hesperus, the western tarnished plant bug, is a serious pest of cotton, strawberries, and seed crops such as alfalfa. In the state of California alone the bug causes US$30 million in damage to cotton plants each year, and at least US$40 million in losses to the state's strawberry industry.

Peristenus pseudopallipes is a parasitoid, which lives within a host as part of its life cycle. It then emerges from the host organism, killing the host.

<i>Lygus gemellatus</i> Species of true bug

Lygus gemellatus is a species of plant-feeding insects in the family Miridae.

<i>Lygus rugulipennis</i> Species of true bug

Lygus rugulipennis, the European tarnished plant bug, is a species of plant bugs of the family Miridae.

<i>Creontiades dilutus</i> Species of true bug

Creontiades dilutus, commonly known as the green mirid, is a member of the bug family Miridae. This insect is considered a "generalist" feeding on over 100 plant species, and is also a major economic pest on several important agricultural crops.

<i>Lygus punctatus</i> Species of true bug

Lygus punctatus is a species of plant bug in the family Miridae.

References

  1. ↑ Parys, Katherine (2014). "Host plants of the tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois)". Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conferences: 765 – via Google Scholar.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fleury, D., Mauffette, Y., Methot, S., Vincent, C. (2010). Activity of Lygus lineolaris (Heteroptera: Miridae) Adults Monitored around the Periphery and inside a Commercial Vineyard. European Journal of Entomology, 107(4), Pg. 527-534.
  3. 1 2 Liu, Houping; Skinner, Margaret; Parker, Bruce L. & Day, W. H. (May 2003). "Recognizing Tarnished Plant Bug Damage" (PDF). University of Vermont Entomology Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 January 2014.
  4. ↑ Perera, O. P.; Saha, Surya; Glover, James; Parys, Katherine A.; Allen, K. Clint; Grozeva, Snejana; Kurtz, Ryan; Reddy, Gadi V. P.; Johnston, J. Spencer; Daly, Mark; Swale, Thomas (2023-06-27). "A chromosome scale assembly of the tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), genome". BMC Research Notes. 16 (1): 125. doi: 10.1186/s13104-023-06408-w . ISSN   1756-0500. PMC   10303854 . PMID   37370172.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Burange, P. S., Roehrdanz, R. L., Boetel, M. A. (2012). Geographically Based Diversity in Mitochondrial DNA of North American Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 105(6), pp. 917–929.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Fleming, D. E., Roehrdanz, R. L., Allen, K. C., Musser, F. R. (2015). Comparisons of Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae) Populations from Two Distinct Geographical Regions of Mississippi. Environmental Entomology, 44(3), pp. 898–906.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Jones, G. D., Allen, K. C. (2013). Pollen Analyses of Tarnished Plant Bugs. Palynology, 37(1), pp. 170–176.
  8. 1 2 Showmaker, K. C., Bednarova, A., Gresham, C., Hsu, C. Y., Peterson, D. G., Krishnan, N. (2016). Insight into the Salivary Gland Transcriptome of Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois). PLoS ONE, 11(1), pp. 1–22.
  9. 1 2 3 Day, W. H. (2006). The Effect of Rainfall on the Abundance of Tarnished Plant Bug Nymphs [Lygus lineolaris (Palisot)] in Alfalfa Fields. Transactions of the American Entomological Society, 132(3/4), pp. 445–450.
  10. ↑ Young, Orrey P. (1989). "Predation by Pisaurina mira (Araneae, Pisauridae) on Lygus lineolaris (Heteroptera, Miridae) and Other Arthropods". The Journal of Arachnology. 17 (1): 43–48. ISSN   0161-8202. JSTOR   3705403.
  11. ↑ Hull, J. J., Perera, O. P., Snodgrass, G. L. (2014). Cloning and Expression Profiling of Odorant-binding Proteins in the Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus lineolaris. Insect Molecular Biology, 23(1), pp. 78–97.
  12. 1 2 3 Legrand, A., Los, L. (2003). Visual Responses of Lygus lineolaris and Lygocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) on Peaches. Florida Entomologist, 86(4), Pg. 424-428.
  13. 1 2 3 Wood, W., Gore, J., Catchot, A., Cook, D., Dodds, D., Krutz, L. J. (2016). Susceptibility of Flowering Cotton to Damage and Yield Loss from Tarnished Plant Bug (Hemiptera: Miridae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 103(9), Pg. 1188-1195.
  14. 1 2 3 Matos, B., Obrycki, J. J. (2004). Abundance and Parasitism of Lygus lineolaris in Alfalfa and Strawberry Fields. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 77(2), pp. 69–79.
  15. 1 2 Zhu, Y. C., Luttrell, R. (2014). Altered Gene Regulation and Potential Association with Metabolic Resistance Development to Imidacloprid in the Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus lineolaris. Pest Management Science, 71(1), pp. 40–57.
  16. ↑ Liu, Houping; Skinner, Maragret; Parker, Bruce L. & Brownbridge, Michael (2002). "Pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina : Hyphomycetes), and other entomopathogenic fungi against Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera : Miridae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 95 (4): 675–681. doi: 10.1603/0022-0493-95.4.675 . PMID   12216806. S2CID   10429080.
  17. ↑ "Tarnished plant bug (TPB)". Vermont Vegetable and Berry Newsletter. University of Vermont Extension. 15 May 1998. Archived from the original on 17 January 2002.
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