Time poverty

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Time poverty is the situation of not having enough discretionary time, as opposed to not having enough money or resources as in economic poverty. Time poverty is a result of time inequality, as a lack of autonomy over how to spend one's time fuels a lack of discretionary time. It is complicated by elements like gender and class. Time-poor individuals often face time-related psychological stress, or time pressure, which has negative health effects. Research on time poverty emphasizes its overlooked status in poverty reduction.

Contents

Definition and measurements

Common categorizations of time in time-use surveys.Time poverty is defined by a lack of discretionary time and can be caused by a number of factors. Time Poverty Flow Chart.png
Common categorizations of time in time-use surveys.Time poverty is defined by a lack of discretionary time and can be caused by a number of factors.

Time poverty is often measured as a lack of free or discretionary time due to an imbalance in necessary time (e.g. sleeping, eating), committed time (e.g. domestic labor), and contracted time (e.g. employment). [1] Another layer to contracted time is the combination of three elements: number of hours, what time of day the hours are worked, and how much effort one has to put into the work. [2]

Estimates for daily committed time varies by study and by individual [3] and are sometimes recorded as "non-free minutes" combining committed and contracted time. [4] Measurements do not always factor poor time management into calculations. [5] Necessary time may also vary due to developmental sleep needs. [6]

Workday for Childless Adult.png
Weekend Day for Childless Adult.png
Sample days using time-use categorizations.

Time poverty research varies between absolute and relative poverty measurements, similar to absolute poverty versus relative poverty. [7] Subjective experience of time pressure may not always align with researchers' expectations when analyzing time-use measurements (i.e. not feeling time pressured despite being time poor). [8]

Spinney and Millward use a Time Poverty Threshold (TPT), similar to an economic poverty line, defined as "150% of median contracted time (i.e. paid labour) plus committed time (i.e. domestic labour)." [9]

Time inequality

Time inequality refers to lack of autonomy over how to spend one's time. [10] Scholars connect this to other inequalities (e.g. gender, class, etc.) to explore the varying levels of autonomy over time across marginalized groups, as well as any resulting consequences for well-being. [10] Time poverty can be seen as a product or symptom of time inequality, similar to poverty and income inequality.

Economic inequality can also contribute to inequal committed time measurements as higher income households may hire housekeepers, personal chefs, or au pairs to "buy time." [3]

Background

Time poverty is often referenced in the phrase "money rich, time poor," which describes wealthy people with busy schedules and little leisure time. [11] [12] Some have characterized this as "chosen time poverty," as wealthier people can choose to live near daily activities or hire servants to alleviate time poverty whereas poorer people cannot. [6] Time poverty is sometimes seen as a counter-concept to the phrase "we all have the same 24 hours." [13]

As a term, "time poverty" may imply free time is positive; however, volunteer work may present social benefits that "just staying at home" does not provide. [14]

People respond more negatively to small losses in money than small losses in time, but the reverse is true for large losses. This could explain time poverty creep. [15]

In development studies

Lack of clean energy and electrification lengthens committed time for women in developing countries. This woman brings firewood in the village Khare. - panoramio.jpg
Lack of clean energy and electrification lengthens committed time for women in developing countries.

Time poverty is an important concept in women's empowerment in development studies, particularly when access to resources is limited. A key goal in time poverty reduction is allowing women to have more time to work in non-farm sectors of the economy. [16] [17]

Lack of access to household appliances worsens time poverty, particularly for women. [18] [19] One study found that lower wattage solar home systems were not sufficient in reducing time poverty, since appliances such as refrigerators and washing machines could not run on them. [20]

Alleviation programs

Infrastructure improvements such as roadbuilding, electrification, and better access to water in the Global South has been shown to lower time constraints on women. [21] Reducing energy poverty does not always directly reduce time poverty as women often use saved time to work longer. [20]

However, conditional cash transfers may worsen time poverty for women as they often take on the role of fulfilling program requirements. [21] One study found that unconditional cash transfers failed to alleviate time poverty because women did not spend the transfers on time-saving services, such as laundry services or take-out. [22] In several studies, when time-saving benefits were offered in a program, a majority of the time participants opted for a monetary benefit instead, including time-poor parents. [23]

Causes

Gender disparities

Inequitable division of labor increases committed time and exacerbates gender differences in time poverty. HOUSEWIFE IN THE KITCHEN OF HER MOBILE HOME IN ONE OF THE TRAILER PARKS. THE TWO PARKS WERE CREATED IN RESPONSE TO... - NARA - 558298.jpg
Inequitable division of labor increases committed time and exacerbates gender differences in time poverty.

Women are more likely to be time poor than men. The discrepancy may be due to the existence of a "second shift," coined in 1989 by Arlie Hochschild to describe the double burden many women face in performing the majority of housework, reproductive labor, after returning from work. [24] The time burden from raising children falls disproportionately on women than men. [25]

A 2014 analysis of the American Time Use Surveys found that never-married women have more discretionary time than married women and therefore, have lower time poverty rates. [26] The author suggests this discovery can be explained through the gendered "family devotion schema" (the societal expectation that women should be the primary caregiver) and "work devotion schema" (the assumption that a woman's drive in her career leaves little time for caregiving) from sociologist Mary Blair-Loy. [26] [27] Under this lens, married mothers feel the pressure to reconcile both schema, and marriage adds another family member (spouse) to care for in the "family devotion" realm, exacerbating time poverty. [28]

10–14 year-old girls spend 50% more time doing household chores than their male peers. This imbalance carries into adulthood worldwide. [29]

Working hours

Campaigns for the eight-hour workday often used terms such as "leisure" or "recreation" for discretionary time. 8hoursday banner 1856.jpg
Campaigns for the eight-hour workday often used terms such as "leisure" or "recreation" for discretionary time.

Time poverty can be caused by poor work-life balance and long working hours. [30] Professional expectations to work overtime can exacerbate time pressure. [15] 32-hour workweeks and preventing after-hour work emails could reduce contracted time. [31] Parental leave, paid vacation hours, [32] and paid sick leave are proposed solutions to work-induced time poverty. [13]

Low-income students are more likely to be time-poor than their peers due to need to work to pay for food and housing. [33]

One study found ecological shocks such as weed invasions increase time poverty by increasing farmers' committed time on the farm and that large farms have a higher increase in time poverty than smaller farms. [34]

Commutes

High commute times and traffic also contribute to feelings of time poverty. Low-income workers commute 120 minutes more a week than coworkers who earned more. [15] One study found that transport-related time poverty and general time poverty were not correlated but "co-occur under specific circumstances" among working parents. The study recommended 15-minute cities as one way to potentially reduce transport-related time poverty. [6]

Care work

According to official United Kingdom government statistics, parents living with children under 15 have 14 fewer hours of free time. Parents are also less likely to finish university than childless students. [32] Familial elder care also increases time poverty, as caregivers tend to keep their employment. [35]

Another scholar's analysis found disparities within groups of heterosexual couples based on class, with professional women having more resources to "contract out" care work than women in couples with lower incomes and wealth levels. As a result, women in couples with higher incomes have more discretionary time. [36]

Effects

Health

Physical

A 2013 study found time-poor individuals are at a higher risk for obesity due to a decrease in time spent on physical activity. [37] Employment-related time poverty may increase "food away from home" behavior (fast food, vending machines, etc.). Time poor individuals may not have time to cook healthy meals at home, particularly during lunch. [38]

Another study found 1 in 4 American women delayed health care treatment due to lack of free time. [39]

One study in Ghana found that an increase in time poverty caused by paid work (employment) was linked to decreased food insecurity, whereas an increase in time poverty from unpaid work (housework) was linked to increased food insecurity. The study suggested better access to child care, community kitchens, and water could alleviate time poverty and food insecurity. [40]

Mental

Lack of discretionary time may lead to fewer social connections and worsen mental health. [25] Time poor workers may suffer from burnout or presenteeism. [30]

In 2021, the American Psychological Association found that both a lack of free time (time poverty) and an excess of free time can have negative psychological effects, but the specific use of extra discretionary time mattered. Individuals who performed "productive" activities, such as socializing, had lessened negative effects. [41]

Negative student outcomes

Students experiencing time poverty have worse academic outcomes than their peers despite working harder. Time-poor students take fewer credits and have lower levels of university retention. [33]

Time poverty may partially explain racial differences in university retention as minority students were more likely to be time poor. [42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "When Twenty-Four Hours is Not Enough: Time Poverty of Working Parents". Social Indicators Research. 82 (1) – via JSTOR.
  2. ↑ Warren, Tracey (2003-11-01). "Classand Gender-based Working Time? Time Poverty and the Division of Domestic Labour" . Sociology. 37 (4): 733–752. doi:10.1177/00380385030374006. ISSN   0038-0385.
  3. 1 2 "Time Poverty Thresholds and Rates for the US Population". Social Indicators Research. 104 (1). October 2011 – via JSTOR.
  4. ↑ "Time Poverty, Work Status and Gender: The Case of Pakistan". The Pakistan Development Review. 51 (1) – via JSTOR.
  5. ↑ "The Time-Pressure Illusion: Discretionary Time vs. Free Time". Social Indicators Research. 73 (1). August 2005 – via JSTOR.
  6. 1 2 3 Tiznado Aitken, Ignacio; Palm, Matthew; Farber, Steven (2024-07-01). "Exploring the interplay of transportation, time poverty, and activity participation". Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 26 101175. Bibcode:2024TrRIP..2601175T. doi: 10.1016/j.trip.2024.101175 . ISSN   2590-1982.
  7. ↑ "A Measure Whose Time has Come: Formalizing Time Poverty". Social Indicators Research. July 2015.
  8. ↑ "Why we feel starved for time". Science News. 2025-11-13. Retrieved 2025-11-18.
  9. ↑ "Time and Money: A New Look at Poverty and the Barriers to Physical Activity in Canada". Social Indicators Research. 99 (2). November 2010 – via JSTOR.
  10. 1 2 Holt, Stephen B.; Vinopal, Katie (2023-02-09). "Examining inequality in the time cost of waiting" . Nature Human Behaviour. 7 (4): 545–555. doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01524-w. ISSN   2397-3374. PMID   36759586.
  11. ↑ Smith, John D.; Stewart, Sue (2014-05-15). Cambridge International AS and A Level Travel and Tourism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-66472-2.
  12. ↑ "Client Challenge". www.ft.com. Retrieved 2025-07-28.
  13. 1 2 "Time Poverty Is The Health Issue We're Not Paying Attention To But Should Be". Women's Health. 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2025-07-29.
  14. ↑ Walker, Julian (2013). "Time poverty, gender and well-being: lessons from the Kyrgyz Swiss Swedish Health Programme". Development in Practice. 23 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1080/09614524.2013.751357. JSTOR   23469259.
  15. 1 2 3 Giurge, Laura M.; Whillans, Ashley V.; West, Colin (October 2020). "Why Time Poverty Matters for Individuals, Organisations, and Nations". Nature Human Behaviour. 4 (10): 993–1003. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0920-z. PMID   32747805.
  16. ↑ Taye, Tadesse Temesgen; Tesfaye, Wondimagegn Mesfin (2024-12-01). "Time poverty and women's participation in non-farm work: Evidence from rural Ethiopia". Scientific African. 26: e02343. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02343. ISSN   2468-2276.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  17. ↑ Gender, time use, and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. 2006. p. 22.
  18. ↑ Salyer, Kirsten. "Melinda Gates Offers a Solution to Time Poverty". TIME. Archived from the original on 2025-03-06. Retrieved 2025-11-19.
  19. ↑ Salyer, Kirsten. "Melinda Gates Offers a Solution to Time Poverty". TIME. Archived from the original on 2025-03-06. Retrieved 2025-11-19.
  20. 1 2 Leduchowicz-Municio, A.; Domenech, B.; Ferrer-Martí, L.; Udaeta, M. E. M.; Gimenes, A. L. V. (2023-08-01). "Women, equality, and energy access: Emerging lessons for last-mile rural electrification in Brazil". Energy Research & Social Science. 102: 103181. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2023.103181. ISSN   2214-6296.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  21. 1 2 Van Der Meulen Rodgers, Yana (June 2023). "Time Poverty: Conceptualization, Gender Differences, and Policy Solutions" . Social Philosophy and Policy. 40 (1): 79–102. doi:10.1017/S0265052523000389. ISSN   0265-0525.
  22. ↑ Whillans, Ashley; West, Colin (2022-01-14). "Alleviating time poverty among the working poor: a pre-registered longitudinal field experiment". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 719. Bibcode:2022NatSR..12..719W. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-04352-y. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   8760253 . PMID   35031629.
  23. ↑ "Why time poverty matters for individuals, organisations and nations". Nature Human Behaviour. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0920-z.
  24. ↑ Robinson, Cheryl. "What Time Poverty Is Costing You—And How To Take Control". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-07-28.
  25. 1 2 Jaggi, Sukhpreet Kaur; Gupta, Deepa Jitendra (2025-12-31). "Chronically busy, chronically unhealthy? Understanding the time poverty and health interplay through systematic review synthesis". Cogent Social Sciences. 11 (1) 2491707. doi: 10.1080/23311886.2025.2491707 .
  26. 1 2 Zilanawala, Afshin (2016-02-01). "Women's Time Poverty and Family Structure: Differences by Parenthood and Employment" . Journal of Family Issues. 37 (3): 369–392. doi:10.1177/0192513X14542432. ISSN   0192-513X.
  27. ↑ Blair-Loy, Mary (2009-07-01). Competing Devotions: Career and Family among Women Executives. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674021594. ISBN   978-0-674-02159-4.
  28. ↑ Zilanawala, Afshin (2016-02-01). "Women's Time Poverty and Family Structure: Differences by Parenthood and Employment" . Journal of Family Issues. 37 (3): 369–392. doi:10.1177/0192513X14542432. ISSN   0192-513X.
  29. ↑ Hyde, Elizabeth; Greene, Margaret E.; Darmstadt, Gary L. (December 2020). "Time poverty: Obstacle to women's human rights, health and sustainable development". Journal of Global Health. 10 (2) 020313. doi:10.7189/jogh.10.020313. ISSN   2047-2986. PMC   7688061 . PMID   33282212.
  30. 1 2 Cameron, Hugh. "Americans are suffering from "time poverty"". Newsweek.
  31. ↑ Robinson, Cheryl. "What Time Poverty Is Costing You—And How To Take Control". Forbes. Retrieved 2025-07-28.
  32. 1 2 Bishop, Katie (3 February 2022). "The 'time poverty' that robs parents of success". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2025-07-29.
  33. 1 2 Wladis, Claire; Hachey, Alyse C.; Conway, Katherine M. (2024-11-01). "It's About Time, Part II: Does Time Poverty Contribute to Inequitable College Outcomes by Gender and Race/Ethnicity?". AERA Open. 10 23328584241237971. doi: 10.1177/23328584241237971 . ISSN   2332-8584.
  34. ↑ "Ecological shock and time poverty: Evidence from northern Ghana". Environmental Development. 51– via Science Direct.
  35. ↑ Connelly, Rachel; Dong, Xiao-yuan; Jacobsen, Joyce; Zhao, Yaohui (2018-04-03). "The Care Economy in Post-Reform China: Feminist Research on Unpaid and Paid Work and Well-Being". Feminist Economics. 24 (2): 1–30. doi: 10.1080/13545701.2018.1441534 . ISSN   1354-5701.
  36. ↑ Warren, Tracey (November 2003). "Class and Gender-based Working Time? Time Poverty and the Division of Domestic Labour". Sociology. 37 (4): 733–752. doi:10.1177/00380385030374006. ISSN   0038-0385.
  37. ↑ "How Does Time Poverty Affect Behavior? A Look at Eating and Physical Activity". Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. 35 (1). March 2013 – via JSTOR.
  38. ↑ "Employment-related time poverty, time stress and food away from home behaviour: Panel evidence from Australia". Appetite. 204.
  39. ↑ kffivetteg (2018-03-13). "Overview: 2017 Kaiser Women's Health Survey". KFF. Retrieved 2025-10-09.
  40. ↑ "An empirical analysis of the time poverty–food insecurity nexus from the perspectives of paid and unpaid work". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 22– via Science Direct.
  41. ↑ "Having Too Little or Too Much Time Is Linked to Lower Subjective Well-Being" (PDF). www.apa.org. Retrieved 2025-11-18.
  42. ↑ Wladis, Claire; Hachey, Alyse C.; Conway, Katherine M. (2024-11-01). "It's About Time, Part II: Does Time Poverty Contribute to Inequitable College Outcomes by Gender and Race/Ethnicity?". AERA Open. 10: 23328584241237971. doi:10.1177/23328584241237971. ISSN   2332-8584.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
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