Use of drugs in warfare

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Use of mind-altering substances in warfare has included drugs used for both relaxation and stimulation. Historically, drug use was often sanctioned and encouraged by militaries through including alcohol and tobacco in troop rations. Stimulants like cocaine and amphetamines were widely used in both World Wars to increase alertness and suppress appetite. Drug use can negatively affect combat readiness and reduce the performance of troops. Drug use also poses additional expenses to the health care systems of militaries.

Contents

Drugs

Alcohol

Two hip flasks, located in the left-center, are featured in the military equipment used as emergency sustenance by the Luftwaffe, which was the air force of Nazi Germany during World War II. Victory show Cosby Leicestershire UK 2013-09-07 zaphad1 Victory show 529 WWII military equipment orginals replicas reenactment etc German Luftwaffe pilot's personal items guns badges goggles knives etc.jpg
Two hip flasks, located in the left-center, are featured in the military equipment used as emergency sustenance by the Luftwaffe, which was the air force of Nazi Germany during World War II.

Alcohol has a long association of military use, and has been called "liquid courage" for its role in preparing troops for battle.

Alcohol has a long association of military use, and has been called "liquid courage" for its role in preparing troops for battle. It has also been used to anaesthetize injured soldiers, celebrate military victories, and cope with the emotions of defeat.

Military and veteran populations face significant challenges in addressing the co-occurrence of PTSD and alcohol use disorder. While existing interventions show promise, more research is needed to evaluate their effectiveness for this specific population, and new tailored interventions should be developed and evaluated to better meet their unique needs. [1]

Reports from the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and since suggested that Russian soldiers are drinking significant amount of alcohol (as well as consuming harder drugs), which increases their losses. Some reports suggest that on occasion, alcohol and drugs have been provided to the lower quality troops by their commanders, in order to facilitate their use as expendable cannon fodder. [2] [3] [4] [5]

Amphetamines

Pervitin, an amphetamine used in World War II Pervitin (Werbeanzeige auf rumanisch).jpg
Pervitin, an amphetamine used in World War II

Amphetamines were given to troops to increase alertness. They had the added benefits of reducing appetites and fatigue. Nazi Germany, in particular, embraced amphetamines during World War II. From April to July 1940, German service members on the Western Front received more than 35 million methamphetamine pills. German troops would go as many as three days without sleep during the invasion of France. In contrast, Britain distributed 72 million amphetamine tablets during the entire war. [6]

A 2023 report by a British military think tank cited evidence that the Russian military had been giving amphetamines, most likely in liquid form, to its soldiers during the Russian invasion of Ukraine. [7]

Anabolic steroids

Although the usage of anabolic steroids is illegal in the United States military, their usage among service members has increased in the 21st Century, particularly among the special forces. [8] Because anabolic steroids increase muscle mass, boost physical endurance, and speed up recovery from injury, they are used by service members to meet the physical demands of their duties. An anonymous survey of US Army Rangers in 2007 found that a quarter of those surveyed admitted to using anabolic steroids and other performance enhancing drugs. [9] The abuse of anabolic steroids can cause heart attacks, strokes, tumors in the liver, renal failure, and psychiatric episodes. [10] Following the death of a sailor during SEAL training in 2022, the navy opened an investigation into the program and discovered that sailors were using anabolic steroids to pass the course and that their usage was tacitly endorsed by instructors. From February 2022 to March 2023, the Navy screened candidates for SEAL training and found elevated testosterone levels in 74 out of 434 candidates with 3 of them testing positive for specific anabolic substances and the other 71 dropping from the program before follow-up testing could be done. [11] As a result of these findings, the navy recommended more stringent drug testing and three commanding officers were pulled from their jobs at the US Navy Special Warfare Center. [12] In September 2023, the United States Navy announced that they would begin to randomly test SEALs forcewide for performance enhancing drugs beginning on November 1. [11]

Caffeine

Military use has contributed to the rise of caffeine as the world's most popular drug. During the American Civil War, each Union troop received a coffee ration of 36 lb (16 kg) annually. World War I saw the dramatic rise of instant coffee: by the end of the conflict, daily production was 42,500 lb (19,300 kg), a 3,000% increase from pre-war production. [6]

Cannabis

US Marine patrolling through a cannabis field in Afghanistan, 2010 USMC-100815-M-3792A-0035.jpg
US Marine patrolling through a cannabis field in Afghanistan, 2010

In the 1910s, U.S. Army soldiers stationed in the Panama Canal Zone and in the Pancho Villa Expedition began using cannabis. [13] [14] Although the drug became illegal to use on bases, the U.S. Army Medical Corps prepared the 1933 report Mariajuana Smoking in Panama for the Panama Canal Department recommending no further restrictions. [15] Between 1948 and 1975 the U.S. Army Chemical Corps also tested chemical agents, including cannabinoids considered for "nonlethal incapacitating agents," to volunteering soldiers in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments. [16] During the Vietnam War American soldiers frequently used cannabis. A 1971 U.S. Department of Defense report claimed that over half of U.S. Armed Forces personnel had used the drug. Beginning in 1968 this led to a political scandal in America that led the Nixon administration to more tightly restrict drug use in the military as part of the War on Drugs, requiring all returning soldiers to pass a clinical urine test in Operation Golden Flow. [17]

After the passage of the Cannabis Act legalizing the recreational use of the drug in Canada in 2018, its use became legal for most active-duty Canadian Armed Forces personnel with restrictions against its use eight hours before duty, 24 hours before handling a loaded weapon, and 28 days before entering an aircraft or submarine. [18]

Cocaine

World War I saw the greatest use of cocaine amongst militaries. It was used for medical purposes and as a performance enhancer. At the time, it was not a controlled substance, and was readily available to troops. The British Army distributed cocaine-containing pills under Tabloid's brand name "Forced March", [19] which were advertised to suppress appetite and increase endurance. In response to a moral panic about the effects of cocaine on society, the British Army Council passed an order in 1916 that prohibited the unauthorized sale of psychoactive drugs like cocaine and opiates to service members. [20]

During the closing days of World War II, the German Army produced a combination of 5 mg of Cocaine, 3 mg of Methamphetamine and 5 mg of Oxycodone in a compound they named D-IX; [21] the compound was reportedly tested on prisoners at the Sachsenhausen concentration camp and found out an individual who had consumed the compound could march 90 kilometers per day without rest while carrying 20 kilograms of equipment. The doctors and military authorities testing the compound were enthusiastic about the results but the war ended before the compound could be mass produced and distributed. [22]

Fenethylline

127 bags of fenethylline seized in Syria before being destroyed in May 2018 Captagon.jpg
127 bags of fenethylline seized in Syria before being destroyed in May 2018

Fenethylline (trade name Captagon) is used by ISIS in combat and smuggled for financing activities. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]

The drug has played a role in the Syrian civil war. [28] [29] The production and sale of fenethylline generates large revenues which are likely used to fund the purchase of weapons, and fenethylline is used as a stimulant by combatants. [29] [30] [31] Poverty and international sanctions that limit legal exports are contributing factors. [32] In May 2021, The Guardian described the effects of fenethylline production in Syria on the economy as "a dirty business that is creating a near-narco-state".

Based on 2023 estimates, about 80% of Captagon is produced in Syria and exported from the port of Latakia with the assistance of the Syrian government under the command of Maher al-Assad. [33] Estimates suggest that the Captagon trade market ranges from $5.7 billion to $57 billion. [34] [35]

Since the fall of the Assad regime in 2024 the new Syrian transitional government has ordered the cessation of the drug trade, and production has reportedly been reduced by 90%. [36]

Hallucinogens

It has been speculated that the Norse berserkers' infamous battle rage had been induced voluntarily by the consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms such as fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) [37] [38] [39] and alkaloid-bearing plants such as black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). [40] An analysis of the symptoms caused by H. niger are also similar to the trance-like symptoms ascribed to the berserkers. [41] While both A. muscaria and H. niger can result in delirious behavior, twitching, increased strength and redness of the face, the latter is also known to have pain-numbing properties. [41]

The 16th century Spanish Franciscan scholar Bernardino de Sahagún wrote that the Chichimeca people of Mexico consumed the root of the peyote, a cactus, to stimulate themselves for battle. In his 1887 Historia del Nayarit (English: History of Nayarit ), José Ortego also wrote that it was a favorite stimulant in warfare. [42]

Khat

Khat may cause a feeling of invincibility and an increased tendency of violent behavior. As a result, its use is popular among combatants in countries where its use is traditional, such as Somalia and Yemen, and it is considered a contributing factor to violent conflicts in these countries. [43] [44]

Opiates

During the American Civil War, opiates were the most effective painkillers available to military surgeons. They were also used to treat diarrhea, muscle spasms of amputees, gangrene, dysentery, inflammation from gunshot wounds, and to sedate agitated troops. [45] The Union Army requisitioned 5.3–10 million opium pills throughout the war, [45] [46] and a further 2.8 million ounces of opiate preparation (such as laudanum). Many veterans of the war had opiate addictions. [46] Opiate addiction became known as "soldier's disease" and "army disease", though the precise effect of the American Civil War on the overall prevalence of opiate addiction is unknown. [47] As a result of World War I, hundreds of thousands of soldiers developed severe opiate addictions, as morphine was commonly used to treat injuries. [20]

Tobacco

Madeleine Carroll handing out chocolate to soldier Hiroshi Suyao whilst carrying cigarettes SC 196559 - PFC Hiroshi Suyao,of Honolulu, a Japanese American soldier, wounded during an attack, receives cigarettes from Madeleine Carroll, the actress.jpg
Madeleine Carroll handing out chocolate to soldier Hiroshi Suyao whilst carrying cigarettes

Tobacco has been viewed as essential to maintaining the morale of troops. Starting with the Thirty Years' War in 17th century Europe, major military encounters caused a surge in tobacco usage, mostly stemming from soldiers' use. During World War I, US Army General John J. Pershing noted, "You ask me what we need to win this war. I answer tobacco as much as bullets. Tobacco is as indispensable as the daily ration; we must have thousands of tons without delay." [6] This sentiment was echoed by US Army General George Goethals, who noted tobacco was as important as food, and US medical officer William Gorgas who said that tobacco promoted contentment and morale, and the benefits outweighed any potential health risks. [6] Such was the tobacco consumption of its troops that the US Government became the single-largest purchaser of cigarettes, including cigarettes in troops' rations and at discounted prices at post exchanges. [6]

Health and social impacts

Alcohol and tobacco

A British soldier drinks a pint of beer on returning from a deployment to Afghanistan. A Soldier Drinks a Pint of Beer on his Return from Afghanistan MOD 45152497.jpg
A British soldier drinks a pint of beer on returning from a deployment to Afghanistan.

Heavy drinking, tobacco use, and use of illegal drugs are common in the US military. [48] Alcohol consumption in the US Military is higher than any other profession, according to CDC data from 2013–2017. American troops spend more days per year consuming alcohol than those in other professions (130 days), and additionally spend more days binge-drinking than those of other professions (41 days). [49] Substance-use disorders were often attributed to moral failure, with the US Supreme Court ruling as recently as 1988 that the Department of Veterans Affairs did not have to pay benefits to alcoholics, as drinking was a result of "willful misconduct". [48] Substance use can adversely affect combat readiness, with tobacco use negatively impacting troop performance and readiness. It can also be costly: In 2006, the cost of tobacco use to the Military Health System $564 million. [48]

The Department of Defense Survey of Health Related Behaviors among Active Duty Military Personnel published that 47% of active duty members engage in binge drinking, with another 20% engaging in heavy drinking in the past 30 days. 11% of respondents engages in prescription drug misuse. Lastly, 30% reported to smoke tobacco, and 10% would smoke one or more packs of cigarettes daily.

After the service members come back from deployments, they go through a post deployment screening, screening them for alcohol, drugs, and mental health disorders. They have to repeat the screening again in a couple of weeks to make sure they are stable afterwards. There is no prolonged treatment necessary to the service members if their screenings come back clear. So, many of the service members disorders go unnoticed because they are able to hide their issues during the screening only, then carry on afterwards.

The amount of substance use disorders diagnosed in the military is significantly lower than any other mental health disorder. This is because many of the clinicians providing these screenings are also service members, and they are aware of the stigma and consequences of a SUD or AUD diagnosis in the military. This is also because of the lack of screening and clinicians available, and they usually only catch a SUD or AUD when the veteran is coming in for another mental illness, such as PTSD. [50]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recreational drug use</span> Use of drugs with the primary intention to alter the state of consciousness

Recreational drug use is the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness, either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime. When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect. Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychopharmacology</span> Study of the effects of psychoactive drugs

Psychopharmacology is the scientific study of the effects drugs have on mood, sensation, thinking, behavior, judgment and evaluation, and memory. It is distinguished from neuropsychopharmacology, which emphasizes the correlation between drug-induced changes in the functioning of cells in the nervous system and changes in consciousness and behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance abuse</span> Harmful use of drugs

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods that are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical, and criminal justice contexts. In some cases, criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long-term personality changes in individuals may also occur. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, the use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Club drug</span> Category of recreational drugs

Club drugs, also called rave drugs or party drugs, are a loosely defined category of recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and nightclubs, dance clubs, electronic dance music (EDM) parties, and raves in the 1980s to today. Unlike many other categories, such as opiates and benzodiazepines, which are established according to pharmaceutical or chemical properties, club drugs are a "category of convenience", in which drugs are included due to the locations they are consumed and/or where the user goes while under the influence of the drugs. Club drugs are generally used by adolescents and young adults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug rehabilitation</span> Processes of treatment for drug dependency

Drug rehabilitation is the process of medical or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and street drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to confront substance dependence, if present, and stop substance misuse to avoid the psychological, legal, financial, social, and medical consequences that can be caused.

There are many hundreds of thousands of possible drugs. Any chemical substance with biological activity may be considered a drug. This list categorises drugs alphabetically and also by other categorisations.

Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A drug addiction, a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An addictive drug is a drug which is both rewarding and reinforcing. ΔFosB, a gene transcription factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions, but not dependence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysubstance use</span> Use of multiple psychoactive substances

Polysubstance use or poly drug use refers to the use of combined psychoactive substances. Polysubstance use may be used for entheogenic, recreational, or off-label indications, with both legal and illegal substances. In many cases one drug is used as a base or primary drug, with additional drugs to leaven or compensate for the side effects, or tolerance, of the primary drug and make the experience more enjoyable with drug synergy effects, or to supplement for primary drug when supply is low.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fenethylline</span> Codrug of amphetamine and theophylline

Fenethylline or fenetylline (INN) is a codrug of amphetamine and theophylline and so a mutual prodrug of both. It is also spelled phenethylline; other names for it are amphetaminoethyltheophylline and amfetyline. The drug was marketed for use as a psychostimulant under the brand names Captagon, Biocapton, and Fitton. The name "Captagon" is often used generically to describe illicitly-produced fenetylline.

Performance-enhancing substances (PESs), also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.

Reverse tolerance or drug sensitization is a pharmacological phenomenon describing subjects' increased reaction to a drug following its repeated use. Not all drugs are subject to reverse tolerance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysubstance dependence</span> A type of substance use disorder

Polysubstance dependence refers to a type of substance use disorder in which an individual uses at least three different classes of substances indiscriminately and does not have a favorite substance that qualifies for dependence on its own. Although any combination of three substances can be used, studies have shown that alcohol is commonly used with another substance. One study on polysubstance use categorized participants who used multiple substances according to their substance of preference. The results of a longitudinal study on substance use led the researchers to observe that excessively using or relying on one substance increased the probability of excessively using or relying on another substance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NCAA banned substances</span> Items prohibited to U.S. collegiate student-athletes

In the United States the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), has since the 1970s been patrolling the usage of illegal drugs and substances for student-athletes attending universities and colleges. In 1999, NCAA Drug Committee published a list containing substances banned for the usage to student-athletes. Year after year it is updated and given to those students participating in college sports. If any student is caught taking any of the substances, they are subjected to suspension or even banned from participating in NCAA sports and possibly attending the university.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance use disorder</span> Continual use of drugs (including alcohol) despite detrimental consequences

Substance use disorder (SUD) is the persistent use of drugs despite substantial harm and adverse consequences to self and others. Related terms include substance use problems and problematic drug or alcohol use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Addiction</span> Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours

Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving and weakens self-control. This phenomenon – drugs reshaping brain function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a brain disorder with a complex variety of psychosocial as well as neurobiological factors that are implicated in the development of addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychoactive drug</span> Chemical substance that alters brain function

A psychoactive drug, mind-altering drug, or consciousness-altering drug is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior. The term psychotropic drug is often used interchangeably, while some sources present narrower definitions. These substances may be used medically; recreationally; to purposefully improve performance or alter consciousness; as entheogens for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes; or for research, including psychedelic therapy. Physicians and other healthcare practitioners prescribe psychoactive drugs from several categories for therapeutic purposes. These include anesthetics, analgesics, anticonvulsant and antiparkinsonian drugs as well as medications used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and stimulants. Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for persons dependent on or addicted to other psychoactive drugs.

Stimulant use disorder is a type of substance use disorder where the use of stimulants caused clinically significant impairment or distress. It is defined in the DSM-5 as "the continued use of amphetamine-type substances, cocaine, or other stimulants leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, from mild to severe". These psychoactive drugs, known as stimulants, are among the most widely used drugs in the world today, although not all stimulants can induce addiction.

Discrimination against people with substance use disorders is a form of discrimination against people with this disease. In the United States, people with substance use disorders are often blamed for their disease, which is often seen as a moral failing, due to a lack of public understanding about substance use disorders being diseases of the brain with 40-60% heritability. People with substance use disorders are likely to be stigmatized, whether in society or healthcare.

The drug economy in Lebanon refers to the expanding Lebanese involvement in both drug production and trade, a phenomenon substantiated by studies. The economic and political upheaval in Lebanon, as delineated in a study by the Euro-Gulf Information Center, has driven Hezbollah, wherein narcotics serve as a notable revenue stream, to intensify its involvement in the drug economy. Western intelligence agencies estimate that Lebanon produces over 4 million pounds of hashish and 20,000 pounds of heroin annually, generating profits exceeding US$4 billion. According to The Washington Post, Lebanon's drug industry contributes substantially to the country's economy, accounting for over half of its foreign-exchange earnings.

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  46. 1 2 Jones, Jonathan S. (1 June 2020). Masur, Kate; Downs, Gregory; Blair, William (eds.). "Opium Slavery: Civil War Veterans and Opiate Addiction". The Journal of the Civil War Era. 10 (2). University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America: Society of Civil War Historians (SCWH)/UNC Press/George and Ann Richards Civil War Era Center (Penn State University): 185–212. doi:10.1353/cwe.2020.0025. ISSN   2154-4727. OCLC   702148177. S2CID   226494545. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2021– via Project MUSE.
  47. ↑ Quinones, Mark A. (1 November 1975). Einstein, Stanley (ed.). "Drug Abuse During the Civil War (1861–1865)". International Journal of the Addictions . 10 (6). Abingdon-on-Thames, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis: 1007–1020. doi:10.3109/10826087509028357. ISSN   1082-6084. LCCN   2006268261. OCLC   901021821. PMID   1104493 . Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  48. 1 2 3 O'Brien, C. P.; Oster, M.; Morden, E. (21 February 2013). "Chapter 2: Understanding Substance Use Disorders in the Military". In O'Brien, Charles P.; Oster, Maryjo; Morden, Emily (eds.). Substance Use Disorders in the U.S. Armed Forces. Washington, D.C., United States of America: National Academies Press. pp. 25–68. doi: 10.17226/13441 . ISBN   978-0-309-26055-8. PMID   24901183. Archived from the original on 20 October 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2021– via NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information)/NLM (United States National Library of Medicine).
  49. ↑ "Drinking Habits by Industry". Delphi. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  50. ↑ Vazan, Peter; Golub, Andrew; Bennett, Alex S. (2013-07-19). "Substance Use and Other Mental Health Disorders Among Veterans Returning to the Inner City: Prevalence, Correlates, and Rates of Unmet Treatment Need". Substance Use & Misuse. 48 (10). Informa UK Limited: 880–893. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.796989. ISSN   1082-6084. PMC   3794703 . PMID   23869460.
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