Yellow stingray

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Yellow stingray
Yellow Stingray, Belize, 2007-09.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Superorder: Batoidea
Order: Myliobatiformes
Family: Urotrygonidae
Genus: Urobatis
Species:
U. jamaicensis
Binomial name
Urobatis jamaicensis
(Cuvier, 1816)
Urobatis jamaicensis rangemap.png
Range of the yellow stingray
Synonyms
  • Raia jamaicensis Cuvier 1816
  • Trygonobatus torpedinus Desmarest 1823
  • Urobatis sloani vermiculatus Garman 1913
  • Urolophus jamaicensisCuvier 1816

The yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis) is a species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae, found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to Trinidad. This bottom-dwelling species inhabits sandy, muddy, or seagrass bottoms in shallow inshore waters, commonly near coral reefs.

Contents

Female yellow stingrays are larger than males. Females reach about a maximum length of about 26 inches whereas the male will reach a maximum length of about 15 inches across. The yellow stingray has a round pectoral fin disc and a short tail with a well-developed caudal fin. It has a highly variable but distinctive dorsal color pattern consisting of either light-on-dark or dark-on-light reticulations forming spots and blotches, and can rapidly change the tonality of this coloration to improve its camouflage.

Relatively sedentary during the day, the yellow stingray feeds on small invertebrates and bony fishes. When hunting it may undulate its disc to uncover buried prey, or lift the front of its disc to form a "cave" attractive to shelter-seeking organisms. This species is aplacental viviparous, meaning that the developing embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ("uterine milk"). Females bear two litters of up to seven young per year in seagrass, following a gestation period of 5–6 months. Though innocuous towards humans, the yellow stingray can inflict a painful injury with its venomous tail spine. This species is taken as bycatch by commercial fisheries and collected for the aquarium trade; it may also be negatively affected by habitat degradation. Nevertheless, it remains common and widespread, which has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to list it under Least Concern.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

French naturalist Georges Cuvier originally described the yellow stingray as Raia jamaicensis in 1816, in Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son organisation pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée. He based his account on specimens obtained from Jamaica, though no type specimens were designated. [2] Subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Urolophus , and then to the genus Urobatis (some literature still refers to this species as Urolophus jamaicensis). Other common names used for this ray include the yellow-spotted ray, the round ray, and the maid ray. [3]

Nathan Lovejoy's 1996 phylogenetic analysis, based on morphology, found that the yellow stingray is the most basal member of a clade that also contains Pacific Urobatis species and the genus Urotrygon of Central and South America. This finding would render Urobatis polyphyletic, though further study is warranted to elucidate the relationships between these taxa. [4]

Description

The yellow stingray is capable of adjusting its coloration to better blend into the environment. Yellow stingray cozumel3.jpg
The yellow stingray is capable of adjusting its coloration to better blend into the environment.

The yellow stingray is small, growing no more than 36 cm (14 in) across and 70 cm (28 in) long. [1] [5] It has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc slightly longer than wide, with a short, obtuse snout. The eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles. There is a narrow curtain of skin between the nostrils, with a fringed posterior margin. [6] The mouth is nearly straight and contains a transverse row of 3–5 papillae on the floor. There are 30–34 tooth rows in the upper jaw and a similar number in the lower jaw, arranged into bands. The teeth are broad-based, with low, blunt crowns in females and juveniles, and tall, pointed cusps in adult males. The teeth of males are more widely spaced than those of females. The pelvic fins have nearly straight leading margins and rounded trailing margins. [3] [7]

The tail is stout and flattened, comprising less than half the total length, and terminates in a small, leaf-shaped caudal fin about a quarter high as long, that is continuous around the last vertebra. [6] [7] A serrated spine is positioned about halfway along the tail. [8] Newborn rays are smooth-skinned; shortly after birth small, blunt tubercles appear in the middle of the back, which in larger adults extends to between the eyes, the "shoulders", and the base of the tail. Adults also develop recurved thorns along the upper margin of the caudal fin. [3] The color and pattern of the yellow stingray varies significantly among individuals, though most follow one of two schemes: minute dark green or brown reticulations on a light background, or dense white, yellow, or golden spots on a dark green or brown background. The underside is yellowish, greenish, or brownish white, with small darker spots toward the disc margin and the tail. [7] This species is capable of rapidly changing the tone and contrast of its coloration to better match its environment. [8]

Distribution and habitat

The yellow stingray prefers habitats with a dense covering of invertebrates. Urobatis jamaicensis.jpg
The yellow stingray prefers habitats with a dense covering of invertebrates.

The yellow stingray is found throughout the inshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico (where it is the only representative of its family) [9] and the Caribbean Sea, including Florida, the Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad. On rare occasions, it ranges as far north as Cape Lookout in North Carolina. [7] [10] It is quite abundant in the Florida Keys and parts of the Antilles, and rather uncommon elsewhere. Off Mexico, this species occupies a salinity range of 26–40  ppt. [1]

Benthic in nature, the yellow stingray inhabits coastal habitats such as bays, lagoons, estuaries, and low-energy surf zones, and has been reported from the water's edge to a depth of 25 m (82 ft). It particularly favors insular hard-bottomed habitats with a dense encrustation of sessile invertebrates (termed live-bottom habitats), but can also be found over sand, mud or seagrass ( Thalassia ), sometimes in the vicinity of coral reefs. [1] Off Jamaica, large numbers of yellow stingrays, up to one per square meter, gather beneath the aerial roots of mangrove trees used as roosts by cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis); it is theorized that the birds' droppings sustain invertebrates that attract the rays. [11] There is no evidence of seasonal migration, though during the spring females tend to be found closer to shore than males. [12]

Biology and ecology

Biofluorescence of the yellow stingray Urobatis jamaicensis biofluorescence.jpg
Biofluorescence of the yellow stingray

During the day, the yellow stingray is fairly inactive and spends much time buried under a thin layer of sediment or lying motionless in vegetation. [13] Tracking studies have shown that it generally remains within a small home range of around 20,000 m2 (220,000 sq ft), with individuals covering only a portion of the entire area on any particular day. It favors the boundaries between different terrain, such as sand and reef. [12] Its periscopic eyes give it a 360° panoramic view of its surroundings; each eye bears an elaborate covering or "operculum" that allows fine control over the amount of light entering the pupil. [14] Therefore, the resting ray is well equipped to detect approaching predators, which may potentially include any large carnivorous fish such as the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). [3] The yellow stingray is most sensitive to sounds of 300–600  Hertz, which is fairly typical among sharks and rays that have been investigated thus far. [15] It and other stingrays have a large brain relative to other rays, comprising around 1–2% of the body weight. [16]

The diet of the yellow stingray is poorly documented but includes shrimps, and likely also worms, clams, and small bony fishes. [17] [18] Typically, the ray will settle over a prey item and trap it against the bottom, whereupon it is manipulated to the mouth with motions of the disc. [19] Like the related round stingray (U. halleri), this species sometimes uses undulations of its disc margins to excavate pits and reveal buried prey. [3] [9] It has also been observed raising the front of its disc to create a shaded "cave", to attract shelter-seeking organisms. [17] Known parasites of the yellow stingray include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium cartagenensis, Phyllobothrium kingae, Discobothrium caribbensis, Rhinebothrium magniphallum, [3] and R. biorchidum, [20] and the monogenean Dendromonocotyle octodiscus. [21]

The yellow stingray exhibits biofluorescence, that is, when illuminated by blue or ultraviolet light, it re-emits it as green, and appears differently than under white light illumination. Biofluorescence potentially assists intraspecific communication and camouflage. [22]

Life history

Seagrass beds are important reproductive habitat for yellow stingrays Urobatis jamaicensis seagrass.jpg
Seagrass beds are important reproductive habitat for yellow stingrays

Like other stingrays, the yellow stingray is aplacental viviparous: at first the embryos are sustained by yolk, which is later supplanted by histotroph ("uterine milk", rich in proteins and lipids), delivered by the mother through numerous finger-like extensions of the uterine epithelium called "trophonemata". [23] [24] Mature females have two functional uteruses, with the left used more than the right. Except in a few individuals, only the left ovary is functional. The reproductive cycle is biannual with a 5–6 month long gestation period. The first period of ovulation occurs from January to April, peaking in late February and early March, with birthing from June to September, peaking in late July and early August. The second period of ovulation occurs from August to September, with birthing from November to January. The two cycles overlap as vitellogenesis (yolk formation) begins while the female is still pregnant. [23]

Courtship and mating in the yellow stingray involves one or more males closely following a female, seeking to bite and grip the rear margin of her disc; the high, pointed teeth of males serve to aid in this endeavor. Once the male successfully holds onto the female, he flips under her so that the two are aligned abdomen-to-abdomen, and inserts a single clasper into her cloaca. Rival males may attempt to interfere with the mating pair by biting or bumping them. In one observation that took place in water 2.5 m (8.2 ft) deep near Tobacco Caye on the Belize Barrier Reef, the male pursuit lasted between 30 and 60 seconds and copulation lasted four minutes. [13] [17]

The predominant source of embryonic nutrition is histotroph, which supports a 46-fold weight increase from ovum to near-term fetus. [23] By the time the embryo is 4.7 cm (1.9 in) across, it has fully resorbed its yolk sac and external gills. [25] The litter size ranges from one to seven. The first litter of the year (spring-summer) is larger than the second (autumn-winter), with the number of offspring increasing with the size of the female; this relationship is not observed for second litter. On the other hand, the newborns of the first litter tend to be slightly smaller than those of the second litter, at an average length of 14.5 cm (5.7 in) versus 15 cm (5.9 in). The second litter's fewer, larger young may reflect the lower temperatures of autumn-winter, which results in slower growth. [23] Seagrass beds serve as important habitat for parturition. [1] The newborns emerge tail-first and are similar in coloration to the adults, though the disc is relatively wider. They also have a small "knob" or "tentacle" that covers most of the spiracle, which is resorbed shortly after birth. [3] [6] Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 15–16 cm (5.9–6.3 in) and 20 cm (7.9 in) respectively. [1] The maximum lifespan is 15–25 years. [26]

Human interactions

Yellow stingrays at the Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida Yellow stingray mote marine.jpg
Yellow stingrays at the Mote Marine Laboratory, Florida

Generally, yellow stingrays pay little heed to divers and can be approached closely. [8] If stepped on or otherwise provoked, however, this ray will defend itself with its tail spine, coated in potent venom. The resulting wound is extremely painful, but seldom life-threatening. [3] [9] Small and docile, the yellow stingray adapts readily to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium; it requires a large amount of space (at least 180 gal or 684 L) and a fine, deep substrate with minimal ornamentation. [17]

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the yellow stingray under Least Concern, citing its wide distribution and high abundance in certain regions. In addition, its small size implies relatively high productivity, which would make its population more resilient to fishing pressure. This species is not targeted commercially, but is probably taken incidentally by inshore fisheries throughout its range. [1] It is also harvested for the home aquarium trade, being the most frequently available member of its family on the North American market. [17] The extent of this trade has not yet been quantified. Another potential threat is habitat degradation, particularly to seagrass beds. No conservation measures have been enacted for this species. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urolophidae</span> Family of cartilaginous fishes

The Urolophidae are a family of rays in the order Myliobatiformes, commonly known as stingarees or round stingrays. This family formerly included the genera Urobatis and Urotrygon of the Americas, which are presently recognized as forming their own family Urotrygonidae. Stingarees are found in the Indo-Pacific region, with the greatest diversity off Australia. They are sluggish, bottom-dwelling fish that have been recorded from shallow waters close to shore to deep waters over the upper continental slope. Measuring between 15 and 80 cm long, these rays have oval to diamond-shaped pectoral fin discs and relatively short tails that terminate in leaf-shaped caudal fins, and may also have small dorsal fins and lateral skin folds. Most are smooth-skinned, and some have ornate dorsal color patterns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short-tail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The short-tail stingray or smooth stingray is a common species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It occurs off southern Africa, typically offshore at a depth of 180–480 m (590–1,570 ft), and off southern Australia and New Zealand, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 156 m (512 ft). It is mostly bottom-dwelling in nature and can be found across a range of habitats from estuaries to reefs, but also frequently will swim into open water. One of the largest stingrays in the world, this heavy-bodied species can grow upwards of 2.1 m (6.9 ft) across and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Its plain-colored, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc is characterized by a lack of dermal denticles even in adults, and white pores beside the head on either side. The body can have colors as well as dark grey or black with rows of white spots along each wing. Its tail is usually shorter than the disc and thick at the base. It is armed with large tubercles and a midline row of large thorns in front of the stinging spine which has the dorsal and ventral fin folds behind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bluespotted ribbontail ray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The bluespotted ribbontail ray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 30 m (100 ft), this species is common throughout the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans in nearshore, coral reef-associated habitats. It is a fairly small ray, not exceeding 35 cm (14 in) in width, with a mostly smooth, oval pectoral fin disc, large protruding eyes, and a relatively short and thick tail with a deep fin fold underneath. It can be easily identified by its striking color pattern of many electric blue spots on a yellowish background, with a pair of blue stripes on the tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plain maskray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The plain maskray or brown stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It is found in shallow, soft-bottomed habitats off northern Australia. Reaching 24 cm (9.4 in) in width, this species has a diamond-shaped, grayish green pectoral fin disc. Its short, whip-like tail has alternating black and white bands with fin folds above and below. There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail, but otherwise the skin is smooth. While this species possesses the dark mask-like pattern across its eyes common to its genus, it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western shovelnose stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The western shovelnose stingaree is a common species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, inhabiting shallow sandy flats and seagrass beds off southwestern Australia from Perth to Gulf St Vincent. Growing to 37 cm (15 in) long, this small ray has a rounded pectoral fin disc and a blunt, broadly triangular snout. Its nostrils have enlarged lobes along the outer rims and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin between them with a strongly fringed posterior margin. Its tail ends in a lance-like caudal fin and lacks dorsal fins and lateral skin folds. This species is colored grayish to brownish above, sometimes with lighter and darker spots, and pale below, sometimes with darker marginal bands and blotches.

The masked stingaree is a common species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to southwestern Australia. It prefers moderately deep areas of sand or seagrass some distance from shore, though it can be found in very shallow water or to a depth of 115 m (377 ft). The masked stingaree can be identified by the two large, dark blotches on the upper surface of its rounded pectoral fin disc, one of which encompasses its eyes like a mask. The outer rims of its nostrils are expanded into prominent lobes, while between the nostrils is a skirt-like curtain of skin with a deeply fringed trailing margin. Its tail bears a small dorsal fin just before the stinging spine, and end in a leaf-like caudal fin. This species grows up to 31 cm (12 in) across.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The common stingaree is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae. The most abundant ray in inshore waters off eastern Australia, it generally inhabits estuaries, sandy flats, and rocky reefs from the shore to a depth of 60 m (200 ft). This plain brownish to grayish species has a rounded pectoral fin disc with a broadly triangular snout. Its nostrils have enlarged lobes on their outer margins and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin with a fringed posterior margin between them. Its tail bears a small dorsal fin before the stinging spine, and terminates in a leaf-shaped caudal fin. This ray can grow to 52 cm (20 in) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Round stingray</span> Species of fish

The round stingray or Haller's round ray and Little round stingray is a species of round ray, family Urotrygonidae, found in the coastal waters of the tropical and subtropical parts of the northeastern Pacific Ocean. It is a small, common ray that feeds mostly on benthic invertebrates. On the beaches of southern California, it is responsible for numerous injuries to bathers, who are stung when they accidentally step on the fish. The wound caused by its venomous spine can be painful, but is non-fatal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandyback stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The sandyback stingaree or great stingaree is a little-known species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to southeastern Australia. It is generally found offshore around the edge of the continental shelf, at a depth of 65–265 m (213–869 ft). A relatively large species reaching 89 cm (35 in) long, the sandyback stingaree has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc wider than long, usually with a dorsal pattern of numerous fine lighter marks on a yellowish to brownish background. Its short tail terminates in a deep, leaf-shaped caudal fin, and bears a sizable dorsal fin just in front of the stinging spine.

The circular stingaree is an uncommon, little-known species of stingray in the family Urolophidae. Endemic to the coastal waters of southwestern Australia, it prefers a rocky and/or vegetated habitat. Reaching 60 cm (24 in) in length, this species is characterized by an oval pectoral fin disc bearing a striking dorsal pattern of lighter spots and rings, and a central circle of white-margined black spots, on a bluish gray background. Between its nostrils is a skirt-shaped curtain of skin, with the posterior corners drawn out into lobes. Its tail bears a rather large dorsal fin in front of the stinging spine, and ends in a deep, lance-like caudal fin. Negligibly affected by human activity, the circular stingaree has been listed under Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crossback stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The crossback stingaree or banded stingaree is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae. It is endemic to southeastern Australia, mainly off Victoria and Tasmania but also marginally to New South Wales and South Australia. This bottom-dwelling fish generally inhabits sand and reef habitats deeper than 100 m (330 ft) off Victoria, and muddy habitats in shallow bays and estuaries off Tasmania. Befitting its name, the crossback stingaree has a distinctive dark pattern on its back, consisting of a midline stripe that is crossed by three transverse bars. It has an oval pectoral fin disc with a blunt snout and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils. Its tail is short with no skin fold along the sides, and a deep, leaf-shaped caudal fin. The youngest rays may have a small dorsal fin in front of the stinging tail spine. This species reaches 50 cm (20 in) in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wide stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The wide stingaree is a little-known species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, found off southwestern Australia. It typically occurs over sand in water 200–300 m (660–980 ft) deep around the edge of the continental shelf. This species has a broad diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc, a slightly pointed snout, and a tail with a leaf-like caudal fin, skin folds along either side, and no dorsal fins. Between its nostrils is a skirt-shaped curtain of skin. It is grayish green above, with faint bluish lines beside and behind the eyes. The maximum length on record is 52 cm (20 in).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The spotted stingaree is an uncommon species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to shallow waters along the coast of southern Australia. It favors rocky reefs and seagrass beds. This species can be readily identified by its nearly circular, dark-colored pectoral fin disc, adorned with a complex pattern of white or cream spots. Its eastern and western forms differ slightly in coloration and have been regarded as separate species. There is a skirt-shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils. Its tail is fairly thick and terminates in a short leaf-shaped caudal fin; a relatively large dorsal fin is present just in front of the stinging spine.

The lobed stingaree is a common species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to southern Western Australia in shallow, inshore sand and seagrass habitats. This species is plain sandy in colour above and has a broad, rounded pectoral fin disc. It is characterized by an enlarged, semicircular skin lobe of unknown function on the inner rim of each nostril. Its tail is slender, with lateral skin folds and a lance-like caudal fin but no dorsal fin. The maximum recorded width is 27 cm (11 in).

The mitotic stingaree or blotched stingaree, is a little-known species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, so named because it has light blue blotches on its back that resemble cells undergoing mitotic division. Though not uncommon, it is found only in a small area of the outer continental shelf off northwestern Australia, at around 200 m (660 ft) down. This species attains a length of 29 cm (11 in) long and has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc with broadly rounded corners and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils. Its tail has subtle skin folds running along either side, no dorsal fin, and a slender leaf-shaped caudal fin. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the mitotic stingaree under Least Concern, as there is little fishing within its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sparsely spotted stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The sparsely spotted stingaree, also known as the white-spotted stingaree or Dixon's stingaree, is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, common off the southern Australian coast. Preferring sandy flats and seagrass beds, this benthic ray can be found from close to shore to a depth of at least 150 m (490 ft), and tends to occur deeper in the northern portion of its range. Reaching a length of 57 cm (22 in), this species has a broad, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc that is typically plain gray in color above with a V-shaped marking between the eyes. Individuals from southerly waters also generally exhibit a smattering of small, dark-edged white spots. This ray is further characterized by a distinctively bell-shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils. Its tail has a skin fold running along either side and a leaf-shaped caudal fin, but no dorsal fin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kapala stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Kapala stingaree is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to inshore waters off southeastern Queensland and New South Wales. It is commonly found on and around rocky reefs at a depth of 10–130 m (33–427 ft). Reaching 51 cm (20 in) in length, the Kapala stingaree has a rounded, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a slender tail, which ends in a leaf-shaped caudal fin and bears lateral skin folds and a small dorsal fin in front of the stinging spine. It has a distinctive bell-shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils. This species is greenish above, with a highly variable pattern of dark markings usually found outside and between the eyes, and over the back and tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenback stingaree</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The greenback stingaree is a little-known species of stingray in the family Urolophidae, endemic to the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope off southeastern Australia. Growing to a length of 51 cm (20 in), this species has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc wider than long and uniformly light green in color above. Between its nostrils is a skirt-shaped curtain of skin. Its tail bears skin folds on either side and a deep, lanceolate caudal fin, but lacks a dorsal fin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jenkins' whipray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Jenkins' whipray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, with a wide distribution in the Indo-Pacific region from South Africa to the Malay Archipelago to northern Australia. This large species grows to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) across and has a broad, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a whip-like tail without fin folds. It has a band of heart-shaped dermal denticles running from between the eyes to the tail on its upper surface, along with a characteristic row of large spear-like thorns along the midline. It is uniform yellowish brown above, becoming grayish on the tail past the stinging spine, and white below; there is apparently a spotted color variant that had previously been described as a different species, the dragon stingray.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown whipray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The brown whipray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, common in inshore, muddy habitats along the northern coast of Australia. It has often been confused in literature for the honeycomb stingray and the black-spotted whipray, which until recently was thought to be the same species. This species has an angular, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a long, very thin tail without fin folds. It is plain brown above, sometimes with white dots or flecks near the edge of the disc, and white below; the tail is dark all over, with alternating dark and light bands near the tip. The maximum recorded disc width is 74 cm (29 in).

References

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  9. 1 2 3 Parsons, G.R. (2006). Sharks, Skates, and Rays of the Gulf of Mexico: A Field Guide . University Press of Mississippi. p.  132. ISBN   1-57806-827-4.
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  11. ↑ Sumich, J.L. & J.F. Morrissey (2004). Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life (eighth ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 103. ISBN   0-7637-3313-X.
  12. 1 2 Fahy, D.P. and R.E. Spieler. Activity patterns, distribution and population structure of the yellow stingray, Urobatis jamaicensis in Southeast Florida (abstract). American Elasmobranch Society 2005 Annual Meeting, Tampa, Florida.
  13. 1 2 Young, R.F. (1993). "Observation of the mating behavior of the yellow stingray, Urolophus jamaicensis". Copeia. 1993 (3): 879–880. doi:10.2307/1447257. JSTOR   1447257.
  14. ↑ McComb, D.M. & S.M. Kajiura (2008). "Visual fields of four batoid fishes: a comparative study". Journal of Experimental Biology. 211 (4): 482–490. doi: 10.1242/jeb.014506 . PMID   18245624.
  15. ↑ Casper, B.M. & D.A. Mann (May 2006). "Evoked potential audiograms of the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) and the yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis)". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 76 (1): 101–108. Bibcode:2006EnvBF..76..101C. doi:10.1007/s10641-006-9012-9. S2CID   35514231.
  16. ↑ Walker, B.K. & R.L. Sherman (2001). "Gross brain morphology in the yellow stingray, Urobatis jamaicensis" (PDF). Florida Scientist. 64 (4): 246–249. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2010-03-25.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Michael, S.W. (2001). Aquarium Sharks & Rays. T.F.H. Publications. pp. 151–152, 235. ISBN   1-890087-57-2.
  18. ↑ O'Shea, O. R.; Wueringer, B. E.; Winchester, M. M.; Brooks, E. J. (2018). "Comparative feeding ecology of the yellow ray Urobatis jamaicensis (Urotrygonidae) from The Bahamas". Journal of Fish Biology. 92 (1): 73–84. Bibcode:2018JFBio..92...73O. doi:10.1111/jfb.13488. ISSN   1095-8649. PMID   29105768.
  19. ↑ Mulvany, S.L. & P.J. Motta (2009). "Feeding kinematics of the Atlantic stingray (Dasyatis sabina) and yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis)". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 49: E279. doi: 10.1093/icb/icp003 .
  20. ↑ Huber, P.M. & G.D. Schmidt (1985). "Rhinebothrium biorchidum n. sp., a tetraphyllidean cestode from a yellow-spotted stingray, Urolophus jamaicensis, in Jamaica". Journal of Parasitology. 71 (1): 1–3. doi:10.2307/3281968. JSTOR   3281968. PMID   3981333. S2CID   28259982.
  21. ↑ Pulido-Flores, G. & S. Monks (January 2005). "Monogenean parasites of some Elasmobranchs (Chondrichthyes) from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico". Comparative Parasitology. 72 (1): 69–74. doi:10.1654/4049. S2CID   84577956.
  22. ↑ Sparks, John S.; Schelly, Robert C.; Smith, W. Leo; Davis, Matthew P.; Tchernov, Dan; Pieribone, Vincent A.; Gruber, David F. (2014). "The Covert World of Fish Biofluorescence: A Phylogenetically Widespread and Phenotypically Variable Phenomenon". PLOS ONE. 9 (1): e83259. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...983259S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083259 . PMC   3885428 . PMID   24421880.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Fahy, D.P.; R.E. Spieler & W.C. Hamlett (2007). "Preliminary observations of the reproductive cycle and uterine fecundity of the yellow stingray, Urobatis jamaicensis (Elasmobranchii: Myliobatiformes: Urolophidae) in Southeast Florida, U.S.A." (PDF). The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. Supplement 14: 131–139. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-03-22.
  24. ↑ Hamlett, W.C. & M. Hysell (1998). "Uterine specializations in elasmobranchs". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 282 (4–5): 438–459. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(199811/12)282:4/5<438::AID-JEZ4>3.3.CO;2-Y. Archived from the original on 2013-01-05.
  25. ↑ Basten, B.L.; R.L. Sherman; A. Lametschwandtner & R.E. Spieler (2009). "Development of embryonic gill vasculature in the yellow stingray, Urobatis jamaicensis". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A. 153A (2): 1423–32. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.04.021. PMID   21714110.
  26. ↑ Animals: Yellow Stingray Archived 2014-10-28 at the Wayback Machine . Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium. Retrieved on March 25, 2010.

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