Brachial plexus

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Brachial plexus
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The right brachial plexus with its short branches, viewed from in front.
PLEXUS BRACHIALIS.jpg
The roots, trunks and cords of the plexus shown in a dissected cadavaric specimen.
Details
FunctionNetwork (nerve plexus ) of nerves that supply the arms.
Identifiers
Latin plexus brachialis
MeSH D001917
TA98 A14.2.03.001
TA2 6395
FMA 5906
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy

The brachial plexus is a network of nerves (nerve plexus) formed by the anterior rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit, it supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand.

Contents

Structure

The brachial plexus is divided into five roots, three trunks, six divisions (three anterior and three posterior), three cords, and five branches. There are five "terminal" branches and numerous other "pre-terminal" or "collateral" branches, such as the subscapular nerve, the thoracodorsal nerve, and the long thoracic nerve, [1] that leave the plexus at various points along its length. [2] A common structure used to identify part of the brachial plexus in cadaver dissections is the M or W shape made by the musculocutaneous nerve, lateral cord, median nerve, medial cord, and ulnar nerve.

Roots

The five roots are the five anterior primary rami of the spinal nerves, after they have given off their segmental supply to the muscles of the neck. The brachial plexus emerges at five different levels: C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1. C5 and C6 merge to establish the upper trunk, C7 continuously forms the middle trunk, and C8 and T1 merge to establish the lower trunk. Prefixed or postfixed formations in some cases involve C4 or T2, respectively. The dorsal scapular nerve comes from the superior trunk [2] and innervates the rhomboid muscles which retract and downwardly rotate the scapula. The subclavian nerve originates in both C5 and C6 and innervates the subclavius, a muscle that involves lifting the first ribs during respiration. The long thoracic nerve arises from C5, C6, and C7. This nerve innervates the serratus anterior, which draws the scapula laterally and is the prime mover in all forward-reaching and pushing actions.

Trunks

These roots merge to form the trunks:

Divisions

Each trunk then splits in two, to form six divisions:

Cords

These six divisions regroup to become the three cords or large fiber bundles. The cords are named by their position with respect to the axillary artery.

Diagram

Anatomical illustration of the brachial plexus .mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}} .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Wikimedia Commons has media related to this diagram . with areas of roots, trunks, divisions and cords marked. Clicking on names of branches will link to their Wikipedia entry. Brachial plexus 2.svgDorsal scapular nerve (rhomboids, levator scapulae)Suprascapular nerve (supraspinatus, infraspinatus)Nerve to subclavius (subclavius)Lateral pectoral nerve (pectoralis major)Musculocutaneous nerve (coracobrachialis, brachialis, biceps brachii)Axillary nerve (deltoid, teres minor)Median nerve (forearm flexors except FCU and radial part of FDP, thenar muscles)Ulnar nerve (FCU and ulnar part of FDP, most intrinsic hand musclesRadial nerve (triceps brachii, supinator, anconeus, forearm extensors, brachioradialis)Lower subscapular nerve (lower part of subscapularis, teres major)Thoracodorsal nerve (latissimus dorsi)Medial pectoral nerve (pectoralis major, pectoralis minor)Upper subscapular nerve (upper part of subscapularis)Long thoracic nerve of Bell (serratus anterior)
Anatomical illustration of the brachial plexus with areas of roots, trunks, divisions and cords marked. Clicking on names of branches will link to their Wikipedia entry.

Branches

The branches are listed below. Most branches arise from the cords, but few branches arise (indicated in italics) directly from earlier structures. The five on the left are considered "terminal branches". These terminal branches are the musculocutaneous nerve, the axillary nerve, the radial nerve, the median nerve, and the ulnar nerve. Due to both emerging from the lateral cord the musculocutaneous nerve and the median nerve are well connected. The musculocutaneous nerve has even been shown to send a branch to the median nerve further connecting them. [1] There have been several variations reported in the branching pattern but these are very rare. [3]

Bold indicates primary spinal root component of nerve. Italics indicate spinal roots that frequently, but not always, contribute to the nerve.

FromNerveRoots [4] Muscles Cutaneous
roots dorsal scapular nerve C4 , C5 rhomboid muscles and levator scapulae -
roots long thoracic nerve C5, C6 , C7 serratus anterior -
rootsbranch to phrenic nerve C3, C4,C5 Diaphragm -
upper trunk nerve to the subclavius C5, C6 subclavius muscle -
upper trunk suprascapular nerve C5, C6 supraspinatus and infraspinatus -
lateral cord lateral pectoral nerve C5, C6, C7 pectoralis major and pectoralis minor (by communicating with the medial pectoral nerve)-
lateral cord musculocutaneous nerve C5, C6, C7 coracobrachialis, brachialis and biceps brachii Becomes the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm Innervates the skin of the anterolateral forearm; elbow joint. [2]
lateral cordlateral root of the median nerve C5,C6,C7fibres to the median nerve

(see below)

-
posterior cord upper subscapular nerve C5, C6 subscapularis (upper part)-
posterior cord thoracodorsal nerve (middle subscapular nerve)C6, C7, C8 latissimus dorsi -
posterior cord lower subscapular nerve C5, C6subscapularis (lower part ) and teres major -
posterior cord axillary nerve C5, C6anterior branch: deltoid and a small area of overlying skin
posterior branch: teres minor and deltoid muscles		posterior branch becomes superior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm Innervates the skin of the lateral shoulder and arm: shoulder joint. [2]
posterior cord radial nerve C5, C6, C7, C8, T1 triceps brachii, supinator, anconeus, the extensor muscles of the forearm, and brachioradialis skin of the posterior arm and posterior forearm as the posterior cutaneous nerve of the arm and the posterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm, respectively. Also superficial branch of radial nerve supplies back of the hand, including the web of skin between the thumb and index finger.
medial cord medial pectoral nerve C8, T1 pectoralis major and pectoralis minor -
medial cordmedial root of the median nerve C8, T1all of the flexors in the forearm except flexor carpi ulnaris and that part of flexor digitorum profundus that supplies the 2nd and 3rd digits

1st and 2nd lumbrical muscles. muscles of the thenar eminence by a recurrent thenar branch

portions of hand not served by ulnar or radial, i.e skin of the palmar side of the thumb, the index and middle finger, half the ring finger, and the nail bed of these fingers
medial cord medial cutaneous nerve of the arm C8, T1-front and medial skin of the arm
medial cord medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm C8, T1-medial skin of the forearm
medial cord ulnar nerve C7, C8, T1(C7 because it supplies to the Flexor carpi ulnaris) flexor carpi ulnaris, the medial two bellies of flexor digitorum profundus, the intrinsic hand muscles, except the thenar muscles and the two lateral lumbricals of the hand which are served by the median nerve the skin of the medial side of the hand and medial one and a half fingers on the palmar side and medial two and a half fingers on the dorsal side

Function

The brachial plexus provides nerve supply to the skin and muscles of the arms, with two exceptions: the trapezius muscle (supplied by the spinal accessory nerve) and an area of skin near the axilla (supplied by the intercostobrachial nerve). The brachial plexus communicates through the sympathetic trunk via gray rami communicantes that join the plexus roots.

The terminal branches of the brachial plexus (musculocutaneous n., axillary n., radial n., median n., and ulnar n.) all have specific sensory, motor and proprioceptive functions. [5] [6]

Terminal BranchSensory InnervationMuscular Innervation
musculocutaneous nerve Skin of the anterolateral forearmBrachialis, biceps brachii, coracobrachialis
axillary nerve Skin of lateral portion of the shoulder and upper armDeltoid and teres minor
radial nerve Posterior aspect of the lateral forearm and wrist; posterior armTriceps brachii, brachioradialis, anconeus, extensor muscles of the posterior arm and forearm
median nerve Skin of lateral 2/3rd of hand and the tips of digits 1-4Forearm flexors, thenar eminence, lumbricals of the hand 1-2
ulnar nerve Skin of palm and medial side of hand and digits 3-5Hypothenar eminence, some forearm flexors, thumb adductor, lumbricals 3-4, interosseous muscles

Clinical significance

Injury

This shows a simulated example of motorcyclist colliding with the floor at an angle, which may damage the brachial plexus nerves. The photo shows how head and shoulder are extremely separated, which may stretch or even tear the nerves in the between area. Protective gear can help prevent nerve damage by providing extra support on the opposite side of the head to prevent over-stretching the neck. Brachial Plexus Injury during Motorcycle accident.jpg
This shows a simulated example of motorcyclist colliding with the floor at an angle, which may damage the brachial plexus nerves. The photo shows how head and shoulder are extremely separated, which may stretch or even tear the nerves in the between area. Protective gear can help prevent nerve damage by providing extra support on the opposite side of the head to prevent over-stretching the neck.
Brachial Plexus relation with the clavicle and the subclavian artery. Brachial Plexus.png
Brachial Plexus relation with the clavicle and the subclavian artery.

Injury to the brachial plexus may affect sensation or movement of different parts of the arm. Injury can be caused by the shoulder being pushed down and the head being pulled up, which stretches or tears the nerves. Injuries associated with malpositioning commonly affect the brachial plexus nerves, rather than other peripheral nerve groups. [7] [8] Due to the brachial plexus nerves being very sensitive to position, there are very limited ways of preventing such injuries. The most common victims of brachial plexus injuries consist of victims of motor vehicle accidents and newborns. [9]

Injuries can be caused by stretching, diseases, and wounds to the lateral cervical region (posterior triangle) of the neck or the axilla. Depending on the location of the injury, the signs and symptoms can range from complete paralysis to anesthesia. Testing the patient's ability to perform movements and comparing it to their normal side is a method to assess the degree of paralysis. A common brachial plexus injury is from a hard landing where the shoulder widely separates from the neck (such as in the case of motorcycle accidents or falling from a tree). These stretches can cause ruptures to the superior portions of the brachial plexus or avulse the roots from the spinal cord. Upper brachial plexus injuries are frequent in newborns when excessive stretching of the neck occurs during delivery. Studies have shown a relationship between a newborn's weight and brachial plexus injuries; however, the number of cesarean deliveries necessary to prevent a single injury is high at most birth weights. [10]

For the upper brachial plexus injuries, paralysis occurs in those muscles supplied by C5 and C6 like the deltoid, biceps, brachialis, and brachioradialis. A loss of sensation in the lateral aspect of the upper limb is also common with such injuries. An inferior brachial plexus injury is far less common but can occur when a person grasps something to break a fall or a baby's upper limb is pulled excessively during delivery. In this case, the short muscles of the hand would be affected and cause the inability to form a full fist position. [11]

To differentiate between preganglionic and postganglionic injury, clinical examination requires that the physician keep the following points in mind. Preganglionic injuries cause loss of sensation above the level of the clavicle, pain in an otherwise insensate hand, ipsilateral Horner's syndrome, and loss of function of muscles supplied by branches arising directly from roots—i.e., long thoracic nerve palsy leading to winging of scapula and elevation of ipsilateral diaphragm due to phrenic nerve palsy.

Acute brachial plexus neuritis is a neurological disorder that is characterized by the onset of severe pain in the shoulder region. Additionally, the compression of cords can cause pain radiating down the arm, numbness, paresthesia, erythema, and weakness of the hands. This kind of injury is common for people who have prolonged hyperabduction of the arm when they are performing tasks above their head.

Sports injuries

One sports injury that is becoming prevalent in contact sports, particularly in the sport of American football, is called a "stinger." An athlete can incur this injury in a collision that can cause cervical axial compression, flexion, or extension of nerve roots or terminal branches of the brachial plexus. [12] In a study conducted on football players at United States Military Academy, researchers found that the most common mechanism of injury is, "the compression of the fixed brachial plexus between the shoulder pad and the superior medial scapula when the pad is pushed into the area of Erb's point, where the brachial plexus is most superficial.". [13] The result of this is a "burning" or "stinging" pain that radiates from the region of the neck to the fingertips. Although this injury causes only a temporary sensation, in some cases it can cause chronic symptoms.

Penetrating wounds

Most penetration wounds require immediate treatment and are not as easy to repair. For example, a deep knife wound to the brachial plexus could damage and/or sever the nerve. According to where the cut was made, it could inhibit action potentials needed to innervate that nerve's specific muscle or muscles.

Injuries during birth

Brachial plexus injuries can occur during the delivery of newborns when after the delivery of the head, the anterior shoulder of the infant cannot pass below the pubic symphysis without manipulation. This manipulation can cause the baby's shoulder to stretch, which can damage the brachial plexus to varying degrees. [14] This type of injury is referred to as shoulder dystocia. Shoulder dystocia can cause obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP), which is the actual injury to the brachial plexus. The incidence of OBPP in the United States is 1.5 per 1000 births, while it is lower in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (0.42 per 1000 births). [15] While there are no known risk factors for OBPP, if a newborn does have shoulder dystocia it increases their risk for OBPP 100-fold. Nerve damage has been connected to birth weight with larger newborns being more susceptible to the injury but it also has to do with the delivery methods. Although very hard to prevent during live birth, doctors must be able to deliver a newborn with precise and gentle movements to decrease chances of injuring the child.

Tumors

Tumors that may occur in the brachial plexus are schwannomas, neurofibromas and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors.

Imaging

Imaging of the Brachial Plexus can be done effectively by using a higher magnetic strength MRI Scanner like 1.5 T or more. It is impossible to evaluate the brachial plexuses with plain Xray, CT and ultrasound scanning can manage to view the plexuses to an extent; hence MRI is preferred in imaging brachial plexus over other imaging modalities due to its multiplanar capability and the tissue contrast difference between brachial plexus and adjacent vessels. The plexuses are best imaged in coronal and sagittal planes, but axial images give an idea about the nerve roots. Generally, T1 WI and T2 WI images are used in various planes for the imaging; but new sequences like MR Myelolography, Fiesta 3D and T2 cube are also used in addition to the basic sequences to gather more information to evaluate the anatomy more.

In anaesthetics

See also

Additional images

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arm</span> Proximal part of the free upper limb between the shoulder and the elbow

In human anatomy, the arm refers to the upper limb in common usage, although academically the term specifically means the upper arm between the glenohumeral joint and the elbow joint. The distal part of the upper limb between the elbow and the radiocarpal joint is known as the forearm or "lower" arm, and the extremity beyond the wrist is the hand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radial nerve</span> Nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb

The radial nerve is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinal nerve</span> Nerve that carries signals between the spinal cord and the body

A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body. In the human body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, one on each side of the vertebral column. These are grouped into the corresponding cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions of the spine. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. The spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Axillary nerve</span> Nerve of the human body near the armpit

The axillary nerve or the circumflex nerve is a nerve of the human body, that originates from the brachial plexus at the level of the axilla (armpit) and carries nerve fibers from C5 and C6. The axillary nerve travels through the quadrangular space with the posterior circumflex humeral artery and vein to innervate the deltoid and teres minor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Long thoracic nerve</span> Large nerve

The long thoracic nerve is a branch of the brachial plexus derived from cervical nerves C5-C7 that innervates the serratus anterior muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Musculocutaneous nerve</span> Nerve in the arm

The musculocutaneous nerve is a mixed branch of the lateral cord of the brachial plexus derived from cervical spinal nerves C5-C7. It arises opposite the lower border of the pectoralis major. It provides motor innervation to the muscles of the anterior compartment of the arm: the coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, and brachialis. It provides sensory innervation to the lateral forearm. It courses through the anterior part of the arm, terminating 2 cm above elbow; after passing the lateral edge of the tendon of biceps brachii it is becomes known as the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suprascapular nerve</span> Mixed nerve of the upper limb

The suprascapular nerve is a mixed nerve that branches from the upper trunk of the brachial plexus. It is derived from the ventral rami of cervical nerves C5-C6. It provides motor innervation to the supraspinatus muscle, and the infraspinatus muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Klumpke paralysis</span> Medical condition

Klumpke's paralysis is a variety of partial palsy of the lower roots of the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus is a network of spinal nerves that originates in the back of the neck, extends through the axilla (armpit), and gives rise to nerves to the upper limb. The paralytic condition is named after Augusta Déjerine-Klumpke.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erb's palsy</span> Paralysis of the arm usually caused during birth

Erb's palsy is a paralysis of the arm caused by injury to the upper group of the arm's main nerves, specifically the severing of the upper trunk C5–C6 nerves. These form part of the brachial plexus, comprising the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5–C8 and thoracic nerve T1. These injuries arise most commonly, but not exclusively, from shoulder dystocia during a difficult birth. Depending on the nature of the damage, the paralysis can either resolve on its own over a period of months, necessitate rehabilitative therapy, or require surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nerve plexus</span> Network of nerve fibres

A nerve plexus is a plexus of intersecting nerves. A nerve plexus is composed of afferent and efferent fibers that arise from the merging of the anterior rami of spinal nerves and blood vessels. There are five spinal nerve plexuses, except in the thoracic region, as well as other forms of autonomic plexuses, many of which are a part of the enteric nervous system. The nerves that arise from the plexuses have both sensory and motor functions. These functions include muscle contraction, the maintenance of body coordination and control, and the reaction to sensations such as heat, cold, pain, and pressure. There are several plexuses in the body, including:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lateral cord</span>

The lateral cord is the part of the brachial plexus formed by the anterior divisions of the upper (C5-C6) and middle trunks (C7). Its name comes from it being lateral to the axillary artery as it passes through the axilla. The other cords of the brachial plexus are the posterior cord and medial cord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brachial plexus injury</span> Medical condition

A brachial plexus injury (BPI), also known as brachial plexus lesion, is an injury to the brachial plexus, the network of nerves that conducts signals from the spinal cord to the shoulder, arm and hand. These nerves originate in the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth cervical (C5–C8), and first thoracic (T1) spinal nerves, and innervate the muscles and skin of the chest, shoulder, arm and hand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medial cord</span>

The medial cord is the part of the brachial plexus formed by of the anterior division of the lower trunk (C8-T1). Its name comes from it being medial to the axillary artery as it passes through the axilla. The other cords of the brachial plexus are the posterior cord and lateral cord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medial pectoral nerve</span>

The medial pectoral nerve is (typically) a branch of the medial cord of the brachial plexus and is derived from spinal nerve roots C8-T1. It provides motor innervation to the pectoralis minor muscle, and the lower half of the pectoralis major muscle. It runs along the inferior border of the pectoralis minor muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper subscapular nerve</span> Nerve of upper limb

The upper (superior) subscapular nerve is the first branch of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. The upper subscapular nerve contains axons from the ventral rami of the C5 and C6 cervical spinal nerves. It innervates the superior portion of the subscapularis muscle. The inferior portion of the subscapularis is innervated by the lower subscapular nerve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lateral pectoral nerve</span>

The lateral pectoral nerve arises from the lateral cord of the brachial plexus, and through it from the C5-7.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nerve point of neck</span>

The nerve point of the neck, also known as Erb's point, is a site at the upper trunk of the brachial plexus located 2–3 cm above the clavicle. It is named for Wilhelm Heinrich Erb. Taken together, there are six types of nerves that meet at this point.

The upper (superior) trunk is part of the brachial plexus. It is formed by joining of the ventral rami of the fifth (C5) and sixth (C6) cervical nerves. The upper trunk divides into an anterior and posterior division.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cervical spinal nerve 8</span> Spinal nerve of the cervical segment

The cervical spinal nerve 8 (C8) is a spinal nerve of the cervical segment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brachial plexus block</span>

Brachial plexus block is a regional anesthesia technique that is sometimes employed as an alternative or as an adjunct to general anesthesia for surgery of the upper extremity. This technique involves the injection of local anesthetic agents in close proximity to the brachial plexus, temporarily blocking the sensation and ability to move the upper extremity. The subject can remain awake during the ensuing surgical procedure, or they can be sedated or even fully anesthetized if necessary.

References

  1. 1 2 Kawai, H; Kawabata, H (2000). Brachial Plexus Palsy. Singapore: World Scientific. pp. 6, 20. ISBN   9810231393.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Saladin, Kenneth (2015). Anatomy and Physiology (7 ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 489–491. ISBN   9789814646437.
  3. ↑ Goel, Shivi; Rustagi, SM; Kumar, A; Mehta, V; Suri, RK (Mar 13, 2014). "Multiple unilateral variations in medial and lateral cords of brachial plexus and their branches". Anatomy & Cell Biology. 47 (1): 77–80. doi:10.5115/acb.2014.47.1.77. PMC   3968270 . PMID   24693486.
  4. ↑ Moore, K.L.; Agur, A.M. (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 430–1. ISBN   978-0-7817-6274-8.
  5. ↑ Saladin, Kenneth (2007). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp.  491. ISBN   9789814646437.
  6. ↑ "Axillary Brachial Plexus Block". www.nysora.com. New York School of Regional Anesthesia. 2013-09-20. Archived from the original on 2017-07-12.
  7. ↑ Cooper, DE; Jenkins, RS; Bready, L; Rockwood Jr, CA (1988). "The prevention of injuries of the brachial plexus secondary to malposition of the patient during surgery". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (228): 33–41. doi:10.1097/00003086-198803000-00005. PMID   3342585.
  8. ↑ Jeyaseelan, L.; Singh, V. K.; Ghosh, S.; Sinisi, M.; Fox, M. (2013). "Iatropathic brachial plexus injury: A complication of delayed fixation of clavicle fractures". The Bone & Joint Journal. 95-B (1): 106–10. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.95B1.29625. PMID   23307682.
  9. ↑ Midha, Rajiv (1997). "Epidemiology of Brachial Plexus Injuries in a Multitrauma Population". Neurosurgery. 40 (6): 1182–8, discussion 1188–9. doi:10.1097/00006123-199706000-00014. PMID   9179891.
  10. ↑ Ecker, Jeffrey L.; Greenberg, James A.; Norwitz, Errol R.; Nadel, Allan S.; Repke, John T. (1997). "Birth Weight as a Predictor of Brachial Plexus Injury". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 89 (5): 643–47. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00007-0. PMID   9166293.
  11. ↑ Moore, Keith (2006). Clinically Oriented Anatomy . Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.  778–81. ISBN   0-7817-3639-0.
  12. ↑ Elias, Ilan. "Recurrent burner syndrome due to presumed cervical spine osteoblastoma in a collision sport athlete - a case report". Journal of Brachial Plexus and Peripheral Nerve Injury. PMID   17553154 . Retrieved 2015-02-06.
  13. ↑ Cunnane, M (2011). "A retrospective study looking at the incidence of 'stinger' injuries in professional rugby union players". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 45 (15): A19. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090606.60 . Retrieved 2015-02-12.
  14. ↑ "Brachial Plexus Injuries Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)". www.ninds.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-12-02. Retrieved 2016-11-28.
  15. ↑ Doumouchtsis, Stergios K.; Arulkumaran, Sabaratnam (2009-09-01). "Are all brachial plexus injuries caused by shoulder dystocia?". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 64 (9): 615–623. doi:10.1097/OGX.0b013e3181b27a3a. ISSN   1533-9866. PMID   19691859.

Bibliography

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