Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

"American Holocaust" redirects here. For the book, see American Holocaust (book).

Contemporary illustration of the 1868 Washita massacre by the 7th Cavalry against Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes, during the American Indian Wars. Violence and conflict with colonists were also important causes of the decline of certain Indigenous American populations since the 16th century.

Population figures for the Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization have been difficult to establish. By the end of the 20th century, most scholars gravitated toward an estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more. ^{[1] [2]}

In an effort to circumvent the hold which the Ottoman Empire held on the overland trade routes to East Asia and the hold that the Aeterni regis granted to Portugal on maritime routes via the African coast and the Indian Ocean, the monarchs of the nascent Spanish Empire decided to fund Columbus' voyage in 1492, which eventually led to the establishment of colonies and the migration of millions of Europeans to the Americas. The population of African and European peoples in the Americas grew steadily, starting in 1492, and at the same time, the Indigenous population began to plummet. Eurasian diseases such as influenza, pneumonic plagues, and smallpox, in combination with conflict, forced removal, enslavement, imprisonment, and outright warfare with European newcomers reduced populations and disrupted traditional societies. ^{[3] [4]} The causes of the decline and the extent of it have been characterized as a genocide by some scholars ^{[5] [6] [7]} while other scholars have disputed this characterization. ^{[6] [8] [9]}

Population overview

Natives of North America.

Natives of South America.

Pre-Columbian population figures are difficult to estimate because of the fragmentary nature of the evidence. Estimates range from 8–112 million. ^[10] Scholars have varied widely on the estimated size of the Indigenous populations prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. ^[11] Estimates are made by extrapolations from small bits of data. In 1976, geographer William Denevan used the existing estimates to derive a "consensus count" of about 54 million people. Nonetheless, more recent estimates still range widely. ^[12] In 1992, Denevan suggested that the total population was approximately 53.9 million and the populations by region were, approximately, 3.8 million for the United States and Canada, 17.2 million for Mexico, 5.6 million for Central America, 3 million for the Caribbean, 15.7 million for the Andes and 8.6 million for lowland South America. ^[13] A 2020 genetic study suggests that prior estimates for the pre-Columbian Caribbean population may have been at least tenfold too large. ^[14] Historian David Stannard estimates that the extermination of Indigenous peoples took the lives of 100 million people: "...the total extermination of many American Indian peoples and the near-extermination of others, in numbers that eventually totaled close to 100,000,000." ^[15] A 2019 study estimates the pre-Columbian Indigenous population contained more than 60 million people, but dropped to 6 million by 1600, based on a drop in atmospheric CO₂ during that period. ^{[16] [17]} Other studies have disputed this conclusion. ^{[18] [19]}

The Indigenous population of the Americas in 1492 was not necessarily at a high point and may actually have already been in decline in some areas. Indigenous populations in most areas of the Americas reached a low point by the early 20th century. ^[20]

Using an estimate of approximately 37 million people in Mexico, Central and South America in 1492 (including 6 million in the Aztec Empire, 5–10 million in the Mayan States, 11 million in what is now Brazil, and 12 million in the Inca Empire), the lowest estimates give a death toll from all causes of 80% by the end of the 17th century (nine million people in 1650). ^[21] Latin America would match its 15th-century population early in the 19th century; it numbered 17 million in 1800, 30 million in 1850, 61 million in 1900, 105 million in 1930, 218 million in 1960, 361 million in 1980, and 563 million in 2005. ^[21] In the last three decades of the 16th century, the population of present-day Mexico dropped to about one million people. ^[21] The Maya population is today estimated at six million, which is about the same as at the end of the 15th century, according to some estimates. ^[21] In what is now Brazil, the Indigenous population declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated four million to some 300,000. Over 60 million Brazilians possess at least one Native South American ancestor, according to a DNA study. ^[22]

While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus, ^[23] estimates range from 3.8 million, as mentioned above, to 7 million ^[24] people to a high of 18 million. ^[25] Scholars vary on the estimated size of the Indigenous population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. ^[26] During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 ^[27] and two million, ^[28] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. ^[29] Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. ^[30] However repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), ^[31] combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a twenty-five percent to eighty percent Indigenous population decrease post-contact. ^[27] Roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. ^[32] In 1871 there was an enumeration of the Indigenous population within the limits of Canada at the time, showing a total of only 102,358 individuals. ^[33] From 2006 to 2016, the Indigenous population has grown by 42.5 percent, four times the national rate. ^[34] According to the 2011 Canadian census, Indigenous peoples (First Nations – 851,560, Inuit – 59,445 and Métis – 451,795) numbered at 1,400,685, or 4.3% of the country's total population. ^[35]

The population debate has often had ideological underpinnings. ^[36] Low estimates were sometimes reflective of European notions of cultural and racial superiority. Historian Francis Jennings argued, "Scholarly wisdom long held that Indians were so inferior in mind and works that they could not possibly have created or sustained large populations." ^[37] In 1998, Africanist Historian David Henige said many population estimates are the result of arbitrary formulas applied from unreliable sources. ^[38]

Estimations

Comparative table of estimates of the pre-Columbian population (millions)

Author	Date	USA and Canada	Mexico	Mesoamerica	Caribbean	Andes	Patagonia and Amazonia	Total
Sapper [39]	1924	2–3	12–15	5–6	3–4	12–15	3–5	37–48.5
Kroeber [40]	1939	0.9	3.2	0.1	0.2	3	1	8.4
Steward [41]	1949	1	4.5	0.74	0.22	6.13	2.9	15.49
Rosenblat [42]	1954	1	4.5	0.8	0.3	4.75	2.03	13.38
Dobyns [43]	1966	9.8–12.25	30–37.5	10.8–13.5	0.44–0.55	30–37.5	9–11.25	90.04–112.55
Ubelaker [44]	1988	1.213–2.639	–	–	–	–	–	–
Denevan [45]	1992	3.79	17.174	5.625	3	15.696	8.619	53.904
Snow [46]	2001	3.44	–	–	–	–	–	–
Alchon [47]	2003	3.5	16–18	5–6	2–3	13–15	7–8	46.5–53.5
Thornton [48]	2005	7	–	–	–	–	–	–
Peros [49]	2009	2.5	–	–	–	–	–	–

Estimations by tribe

Population size for Native American tribes is difficult to state definitively, but at least one writer has made estimates, often based on an assumed proportion of the number of warriors to total population for the tribe. ^[50] Typical proportions were 5 people per one warrior and at least 1 up to 5 warriors (therefore at least 5–25 people) per lodge, cabin or house.

Highest available estimates: probable population peaks ^[50]

Rank	Cultural Area	Region	Tribe or nation	Highest pop. estimate	Year	Towns/ villages	Lodges/cabins/houses/tents/tipis etc.	Sources of estimates
1	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Sioux [Note 1] [51] [52]	150,000 – 50,000 (1841)	1762	40+	5,000 lodges in 1846, averaging over ten people per lodge	Lt. James Gorrell [53] and A. Ramsey
2	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Choctaw [Note 2] [54]	125,000	1718	102 [55]	102 towns enumerated by Swanton	Le Page du Pratz and J. R. Swanton
3	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Illinois [Note 3] [56]	100,000	1658	60		Jean de Quen
4a	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Shoshone	60,000	1822		(number without 20,000 East Shoshone)	Jeddediah Morse
4b	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Eastern Shoshone	20,000	1822			Jeddediah Morse
5	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Tigua (Tiwa)	78,100+	1626	20	7,000 houses only in two largest pueblos	Alonso de Benavides [57]
6a	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Blackfoot [Note 4]	37,500 – 30,000 (1841)	1836		(60,000 in 1841 & approx. 75,000 in 1836, ca. half of them in the USA)	George Catlin
6b	Great Plains	Prairies, Canada	Blackfoot [58]	37,500 – 30,000 (1841)	1836		(60,000 in 1841 & approx. 75,000 in 1836, ca. half of them in Canada)	George Catlin
7	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Iroquois [Note 5] [59]	70,000	1690	226 [60]	Nearly 60 towns destroyed in 1779 [61]	L. A. de Lahontan and John R. Swanton
8	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Apache	60,000	1700			José de Urrutia
9	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Creek (Muscogee)	50,000	1794	100	(at least 100 towns in 1789 per Henry Knox)	James Seagrove & Henry Knox
10	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Hopi [Note 6] [62]	50,000	1584	7		Antonio de Espejo
11	NE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Shawnee	50,000 – 15,000 (1702)	1540	38+	(at first contact est. 50,000 & 15,000 in 1702)	M. A. Jaimes [63] & Pierre d'Iberville
12	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Crows (Absaroka)	45,000	1834			Samuel Gardner Drake [64] [65]
13	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Hurons [Note 7] [66]	40,000	1632	32		Gabriel Sagard and J. Lalemant
14	Great Plains	Texas Annexation	Comanche	40,000	1832			George Catlin and J. Morse
15	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Tano/Maguas incluuding Pecos	40,000	1584	11		Antonio de Espejo
16	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Miami [Note 8] [67]	40,000	1657	20+	(one of their towns had 400 families in 1751)	Gabriel Druillettes
17	NE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Ioways	40,000	1762	16+	(at least 16 towns in the early 19th century)	Lt. James Gorrell [53]
18a	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Piegan in the USA	30,000	1700		(ca. 3/4 in the USA, ca. 6,000 lodges)	George Bird Grinnell
18b	Great Plains	Alberta, Canada	Piegan in Canada	10,000	1700		(ca. 1/4 in Canada, ca. 2,000 lodges)	George Bird Grinnell
19	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Pawnee [Note 9] [68]	38,000	1719	38	5,000 – 6,000 cabins/lodges & 7,600 warriors	Claude Du Tisne and L. Krzywicki
20a	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Chippewa (Ojibwe) in the USA	18,000	1860		(half in the USA and half in Canada)	Emmanuel Domenech [69]
20b	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Chippewa (Ojibwe) in Canada	18,000	1860		(half in the USA and half in Canada)	Emmanuel Domenech [69]
21a	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Assiniboine in the USA	17,500	1823	15+	(ca. half in the USA, ca. 1,500 lodges)	W. H. Keating and G. C. Beltrami
21b	Great Plains	Prairies, Canada	Assiniboine in Canada	17,500	1823	15+	(ca. half in Canada, ca. 1,500 lodges)	W. H. Keating and G. C. Beltrami
22	NE Woodlands	Acadia, Canada	Mi'kmaq	35,000	1500			Virginia P. Miller [70]
23	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Apalachee	34,000	1635	11+		J. R. Swanton
24	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Navajo (Navaho)	30,000+	1626		In 1910 still numbered 29,624 people in Arizona and New Mexico	Alonso de Benavides
25	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Cherokee [Note 10] [71]	30,000	1735	201 [72]	201 towns enumerated by Swanton	J. Adair and Ga. Hist. Coll., II
26	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Tuscarora [Note 11] [73]	30,000	1600	24		D. Cusick
27	NE Woodlands	New England	Narragansett	30,000	1642	8+		S. G. Drake and J. R. Swanton
28	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Mohicans	30,000	1600	16+		J. A. Maurault and J. R. Swanton
29	NE Woodlands	New England	Massachusett	30,000	1600			J. A. Maurault
30	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Jemez [Note 12] [74]	30,000	1584	11		Antonio de Espejo
31	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Timucua	30,000	1635	141	44 missions in 1635: 30,000 Christian Indians	J. R. Swanton
32	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Clayoquot	30,000	1780		(30,000 under the rule of chief Wickaninnish)	Ho. Doc. 1839–1840 and Meares
33a	Subarctic & Arctic	Saskatchewan, Canada	Woods Cree in Saskatchewan	5,600	1670			James Mooney
33b	Subarctic & Arctic	Manitoba, Canada	Cree living in Manitoba	4,250	1670			James Mooney
33c	Subarctic & Arctic	Alberta, Canada	Woodland Cree in Alberta	3,050	1670			James Mooney
33d	Subarctic & Arctic	Ontario, Canada	Swampy Cree in Ontario	2,100	1670			James Mooney
33e	Subarctic & Arctic	Ontario, Canada	Moose Cree in Ontario	5,000	1600			James Mooney
33f	Great Plains	Prairies, Canada	Plains Cree	7,000	1853			David G. Mandelbaum
34a	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Ute living in Utah	13,050	1867			Indian Affairs 1867
34b	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Ute living in Colorado	7,000	1866			Indian Affairs 1866
34c	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Ute living in New Mexico	6,000	1846–1854			H. H. Davis and Indian Affairs 1854
35	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Mabila (Mobile)	25,000	1540		Mississippian chiefdom under chief Tuskaloosa, about 5,000 warriors	Ludwik Krzywicki
36	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Chinook tribes	22,000	1780		1,000 lodges just among the Lower Chinook	James Mooney [75] and Duflot de Mofras
37	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Mascouten	20,000	1679		They consisted of 12 sub-tribes	Claude Dablon
38	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Chickasaw	20,000	1687	27+		Louis Hennepin
39	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Neutrals [Note 13] [76]	20,000	1616	40		Samuel de Champlain
40	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Zuni	20,000	1584	12		Antonio de Espejo
41	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Tewa/Ubates	20,000	1584	5		Antonio de Espejo
42	NE Woodlands	New England	Pequots [Note 14] [77]	20,000	1600	21		Daniel Gookin and J. R. Swanton
43	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Skidi	20,000	1687	22	At least 4,400 cabins (on average at least 200 per town)	George Bird Grinnell
44	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Natchez	20,000	1715	60		Pierre Charlevoix
45	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Punames	20,000	1584	5	Zia was the largest of 5 Puname pueblos	Antonio de Espejo
46	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Lenape (exonym Delaware)	18,400	1635–1648	118	(3,680 warriors in 27 divisions or "kingdoms")	R. Evelin, Th. Donaldson & Swanton
47	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Mandan	17,500 – 15,000 (1836)	1738	17	1,000+ lodges and 3,500 warriors	W. Sanstead [78] & Indian Affairs 1836
48	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Atsina (Gros Ventre)	16,800	1837		Still reported at 16,800 in 1841 [79]	Indian Affairs 1837
49	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Powhatan	16,600	1616	161	(3,320 warriors in 1616)	William Strachey and John Smith
50	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Nanticoke confederacy	16,500	1600	16+	(1,100 warriors in 4 tribes, in total 12 tribes)	John Smith and J. R. Swanton
51	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Arikaras	16,000	1700	48		Kinglsey M. Bray [80]
52	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Vancouver Island Salish	15,500	1780		(Coast Salish on Vancouver Island)	Herbert C. Taylor [81]
53	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Arapaho	15,250	1812			M. R. Stuart
54	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Wichita	15,000+	1772		(3,000+ warriors)	Juan de Ripperda
55	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Keres [Note 15] [82]	15,000	1584	7		Antonio de Espejo
56	NE Woodlands	New England	Abenaki	15,000	1600	31		J. A. Maurault and J. R. Swanton
57	NE Woodlands	New England	Pennacook confederacy	15,000	1674			Daniel Gookin
58	NE Woodlands	New England	Wampanoag	15,000	1600	46		Daniel Gookin and J. R. Swanton
59	NE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Missouria [Note 16] [83]	15,000	1764			H. Bouquet and J. Buchanan
60	NE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Osage	15,000	1702	17	1,500 families	Pierre d'Iberville
61	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Hidatsa	15,000	1835			William M. Denevan [84]
62	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Ottawa	15,000 – 13,150 (1825)	1777		(3,000 warriors in 1777)	L. Houck and J. C. Colhoun
63	Southwest	Texas Annexation	Coahuiltecan tribes	15,000	1690			James Mooney [85]
64	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Mishinimaki	15,000	1600	30		Claude Dablon
65	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Taos (Yuraba)	15,000	1540			Relacion del Suceso [86]
66	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Erie	14,500	1653			J. N. B. Hewitt
67	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Kwakiutl tribes excluding Haisla	14,500	1780			Herbert C. Taylor [87]
68	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Nootka (Nutka) tribes	14,000	1780			Herbert C. Taylor [87]
69	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Wappinger confederacy	13,500	1600	68		E. J. Boesch and J. R. Swanton
70	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Mississaugas	12,000+	1744	3+	(2,400 warriors in 3 large towns)	Arthur Dobbs
71	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Coast Salish (except VI)	12,000	1835		(includes 7,100 mainland Cowichan tribes and 1,400 mainland Comox)	Wilson Duff & J. Mooney
72	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Franklin, Canada	District of Franklin Inuit	12,000	1670			James Mooney
73	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Lekwiltok	10,520	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
74	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Puget Sound Salish tribes	10,300	1780			Herbert C. Taylor
75	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Catawba	10,000	1700			R. Mills and H. Lewis Scaife [88]
76	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pima	10,000	1850			S. Mowry
77	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Cheyenne	10,000	1856		1,000 lodges and 2,000 warriors	Thomas S. Twiss [89]
78	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Chilkat	10,000	1869			F. K. Louthan
79	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Tompiro	10,000	1626	15		Alonso de Benavides
80	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Menominee	10,000	1778		(2,000 warriors)	H. R. Schoolcraft
81	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Mohave	10,000	1869			William Abraham Bell
82	Southwest	Texas Annexation	Jumanos	10,000	1584	5+	5 large pueblos	Antonio de Espejo
83	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Seminole [90]	10,000	1836	93 [91]	(other figures: 4,883 people in 1821 and 6,385 people in 1822)	N. G. Taylor and Capt. Hugh Young
84	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Calusa	10,000	1570	56		Lopez de Velasco & J. R. Swanton
85	Great Plains	Texas Annexation	Kichai, Waco, Tawakoni	10,000	1719		(2,000 warriors)	Benard de La Harpe
86	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Pisquow (Piskwau) and Sinkiuse-Columbia	10,000	1780		(including Wenatchi / Wenatchee)	James Teit
87	NE Woodlands	Quebec, Canada	St. Lawrence Iroquoians	10,000	1500		Also known as Laurentians	Gary Warrick & Louis Lesage [92]
88	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Flathead Salish	9,000	1821		(1,800 warriors)	M. R. Stuart
89	Great Basin	Oregon Country	Bannock and Diggers	9,000	1848		1,200 lodges of southern Bannock (in 1829)	Joseph L. Meek and Jim Bridger
90	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Caddo tribes	8,500	1690			James Mooney
91	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Haida (except Kaigani)	8,400	1787	42+		C. F. Newcombe
92	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Paiute	8,200	1859			John Weiss Forney
93	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Kansa (Kaw)	8,000	1764		(1,600 warriors)	Henry Bouquet
94	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Nez Perce	8,000	1806			Isaac Ingalls Stevens
95	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Tionontati (Petun)	8,000	1600	9	9 towns, 600 families in the main town	James Mooney & Jes. Rel. XXXV
96	Subarctic & Arctic	Canada	Chipewyan	7,500	1812			Samuel Gardner Drake
97	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Shuswap	7,200	1850			James Teit [93] and A. C. Anderson
98	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Omaha-Ponca	7,200	1702			Pierre d'Iberville
99	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Yamasee	7,000	1702	10	(1,400 warriors)	Guillaume Delisle
100	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Conoy (Piscataway)	7,000+	1600	13+		W. M. Denevan [84] & J. R. Swanton
101	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Umpqua	7,000	1835			Samuel Parker
102	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Tsimshian of British Colombia & Niska	7,000	1780		(includes Kitksan and Kitsun tribes)	James Mooney
103	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Papago	6,800	1863	19		Indian Affairs 1863 [94]
104	NE Woodlands	Quebec, Canada	Algonquin (Anicinàpe)	6,500	1860			Emmanuel Domenech
105	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Sauk	6,500	1786			Wisconsin Hist. Coll., XII
106	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Potawatomi	6,500	1829			Peter Buell Porter & William Clark
107	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Foxes (Meskwaki)	6,400	1835			Cutting Marsh [95] in Wisconsin Hist. Coll., XV
108	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Piro	6,000	1626	14		Alonso de Benavides
109	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Acoma	6,000	1584		500+ houses	Antonio de Espejo
110	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Wea	6,000	1718	5	(1,200 warriors)	N. Y. Col. Dcts., IX
111	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Quapaw (Arkansa)	6,000	1541	4+		Fidalgo D'Elvas [96]
112	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Yakima	6,000	1857		(1,200 warriors)	A. N. Armstrong [97]
113	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Montauk	6,000	1600	20		J. R. Swanton
114	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Alsea, Siuslaw,Yaquina and Luckton	6,000	1780	110	(tribes of Yakonan language family)	James Mooney and James Owen Dorsey
115	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Winnebago	5,800	1818			Jeddediah Morse
116	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Rogue River Indians (Tututni tribes)	5,600	1780			James Mooney
117	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Kutenai (Ktunaxa)	5,600	1820			Jeddediah Morse
118	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Yuma	5,500	1775–1855			A. F. Bandelier, Ten Kate
119	Subarctic & Arctic	Quebec, Canada	Innu and Naskapi	5,500	1600	17+		James Mooney and J. R. Swanton
120	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Kiowa	5,450	1805–1807			Z. M. Pike
121	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Susquehanna (Conestoga)	5,000	1600	20+		James Mooney and J. R. Swanton
122	NE Woodlands	New England	Pocumtuk	5,000	1600			Pocumtuc History [98]
123	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Thompson (Nlaka'pamux)	5,000	1858			James Teit [99] & A. C. Anderson
124	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Carrier (Dakelh)	5,000	1835			A. C. Anderson and J. Mooney
125	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Klikitat	5,000	1829		(1,000 warriors under chief Casanow)	Paul Kane
126	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Hasinai confederacy	5,000	1716			Herbert Eugene Bolton
127	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Makah	5,000+	1805		(more than 1,000 warriors)	John R. Jewitt
128	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Yuchi (Uchee)	5,000 – 2,500 (in 1777)	1550		(at least 500 warriors in year 1777)	William Bartram & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
129	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	District of Mackenzie Inuit	4,800	1670			James Mooney
130	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Chilcotin (Tsilkotin)	4,600	1793		(by 1888 population was 10% of 1793 level)	A. G. Morice and HBC employees
131	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Chopunnish	4,300	1806			Extinct native american tribes of North America [101]
132	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Honniasont	4,000+	1662		(800+ warriors)	J. R. Swanton [102]
133	NE Woodlands	New England	Niantic	4,000	1500			Capers Jones [103]
134	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Chitimacha	4,000	1699		300+ cabins and 800 warriors	Benard de La Harpe
135	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Lillooet (Stʼatʼimc)	4,000	1780			James Mooney and J. Teit [104]
136	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Modoc & Klamath	4,000	1868			Indian Affairs 1868
137	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Weapemeoc (Yeopim)	4,000	1585	5+	(800 warriors)	S. R. Grenville
138	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Sahaptin	4,000	1857		(Tenino, Tygh, Wyam, John Day, Tilquni)	A. N. Armstrong [97]
139	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Guale	4,000	1650			J. R. Swanton
140	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Wappatoo tribes	3,600	1780			James Mooney [105]
141	Subarctic & Arctic	Nunatsiavut, Labrador, Canada	Labrador Inuit	3,600	1600			J. Mooney & Kroeber [106]
142	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Chowanoc	3,500+	1585	5	(1585: 700 warriors just in one of five towns)	Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
143	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Acolapissa	3,500	1600		120+ cabins	Acolapissa History [107]
144	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Colville	3,500	1806			Isaac Ingalls Stevens
145	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Babine (Witsuwitʼen)	3,500	1780			James Mooney
146	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Havasupai & Tontos	3,500	1854			Amiel Weeks Whipple
147	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Nisqually	3,495	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
148	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Kiowa-Apache	3,375	1818			Jeddediah Morse
149	Subarctic & Arctic	Canada	Kutchin (Loucheux)	3,200	1740–1857		(six subdivisions, in total 640 warriors)	Richardson, A. G. Morice, Krzywicki
150	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Sekani	3,200	1780			James Mooney and Sekani Indians of Canada [108]
151	Subarctic & Arctic	Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada	Beothuk	3,050	1500			Ralph T. Pastore, Leslie Upton [109]
152	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Alibamu	3,000	1764	6	(600 warriors)	Henry Bouquet
153	NE Woodlands	New England	Nantucket	3,000	1660			J. Barber in J. Chase
154	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Nottoway	3,000	1586		(600 warriors)	R. Lane in Hakluyt, VIII
155	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Tonkawa	3,000	1814		(600 warriors)	John F. Schermerhorn
156	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Wallawalla (Walula)	3,000	1848			Miss A. J. Allen [110]
157	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Spokan (Spokane)	3,000	1848			Joseph L. Meek
158	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Okinagan (Syilx)	3,000	1780		Also spelled Okanagan	James Teit
159	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Nipissing	3,000	1764		(600 warriors)	Th. Hutchins in H. R. Schoolcraft
160	NE Woodlands	New England	Shawomets & Cowsetts	3,000	1500			Capers Jones [103]
161	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Alchedoma	3,000	1799	8	(according to Juan de Onate – 8 towns in 1604)	J. Cortez
162	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Palouse (Palus)	3,000	1805			George Gibbs
163	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Maricopa	3,000	1799			J. Cortez
164	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Taposa and Ibitoupa	3,000	1699			Baudry de Lozieres
165	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Multnomah	3,000	1830		(decimated by epidemics in 1830s)	Hall J. Kelley
166	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Keewatin, Canada	District of Keewatin Inuit	3,000	1670			James Mooney
167	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Potano	3,000	1650			James Mooney
168	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Cocopah (Cocopa)	3,000	1775	9		Francisco Garcés and de Oñate
169	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Kalapuya tribes	3,000	1780		Eight tribes or bands	James Mooney
170	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Cajuenche (Cawina)	3,000	1680			James Mooney
171	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Pueblo Picuris	3,000	1680			Agustín de Vetancurt
172	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Watlala	2,800	1805			Lewis and Clark
173	NE Woodlands	Acadia, Canada	Maliseet (Malecite)	2,750	1764		(550 warriors)	Th. Hutchins in H. R. Schoolcraft
174	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Heiltsuk/Haisla (incl. Bellabella)	2,700	1780			James Mooney
175	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Skitswish	2,600	1806			Isaac Ingalls Stevens
176	NE Woodlands	New England	Mohegan	2,500	1680	21	(500 warriors)	Mass. Hist. Coll. and J. R. Swanton
177	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Clackamas	2,500	1780	11		James Mooney
178	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Yavapai	2,500	1869			J. Ross Browne
179	NE Woodlands	New England	Nipmuc	2,500	1500	29		Capers Jones [103] and J. R. Swanton
180	Southwest	Texas Annexation	Karankawa	2,500+	1751		(500+ warriors)	Manuel Ramirez de la Piszina [111]
181	Subarctic & Arctic	Northwest Territories, Canada	Inuvialuit	2,500	1850			Jessica M. Shadian, Mark Nuttall
182	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Manhasset	2,500	1500		(500+ warriors)	E. M. Ruttenber
183	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Snohomish	2,500	1844			Duflot de Mofras
184	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Ofo, Koroa & Tioux (Tiou)	2,450	1700			J. R. Swanton
185	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Cowlitz	2,400	1822	3		Jeddediah Morse
186	NE Woodlands	New England	Penobscot	2,250	1702	14	(450 warriors)	N. H. Hist. Coll., I and J. R. Swanton
187	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Tunica	2,250	1698	7	260 cabins and 450 warriors	J. G. Shea and J. R. Swanton
188	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Kalispel	2,250	1835–1850		(450 warriors)	HBC agents & Joseph Lane
189	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Kickapoo	2,200	1825			McKenney
190	Great Plains	Alberta, Canada	Sarcee (Tsuutʼina)	2,200	1832		220 tents, on average 10 people per tent	George Catlin and John Maclean
191	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Tillamook	2,200	1820	10		Jeddediah Morse
192	Subarctic & Arctic	Yukon, Canada	Yukon Inuit	2,200	1670			James Mooney
193	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Tapanash (Eneeshur) including Skinpah	2,200	1780			James Mooney
194	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Yazoo	2,000+	1700			Dumont de Montigny
195	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Nahani and Tahltan in British Columbia	2,000	1780			James Mooney
196	NE Woodlands	New England	Nauset	2,000	1600	24		W. M. Denevan [84] & J. R. Swanton
197	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Wenro	2,000	1600			J. N. B. Hewitt
198	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Slavey	2,000	1857			Emile Petitot
199	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Walapai	2,000	1869			J. Ross Browne
200	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Cayuse	2,000	1835			Samuel Parker
201	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Sinixt (Senijextee)	2,000+	1780	20+		James Teit
202	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Nuxalk (Bella Coola)	2,000	1835			Wilson Duff
203	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Quatsino	2,000	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
204	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Messassagnes	2,000	1764			Extinct native american tribes of North America [101]
205	Great Plains	Saskatchewan, Canada	Fall Indians (Alannar)	2,000	1804			Extinct native american tribes of North America [101]
206	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Samish	2,000+	1845			Edmund Clare Fitzhugh
207	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Athabasca, Canada	Etheneldeli	2,000	1875			Émile Petitot
208	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Klallam	2,000	1780			James Mooney
209	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Chakchiuma	2,000	1702		400 families in 1702	Bienville
210	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Coos and Mulluk	2,000	1780			James Mooney
211	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Qnigyuma (Jalliquamay)	2,000	1680			James Mooney
212	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Cusabo and Cusso	1,900	1600		(Cusabo 1,300 and Cusso 600)	James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
213	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Chimnapum (Chamnapum)	1,860	1805		42 lodges	Lewis and Clark
214	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Wanapum (Wanapam)	1,800	1780			James Mooney
215	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Squamish (Squawmish)	1,800	1780			James Mooney
216	Subarctic & Arctic	Ungava Peninsula, Quebec, Canada	Ungava Inuit	1,800	1600			James Mooney
217	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Shahala	1,700	1780			James Mooney
218	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Coquille	1,650	1800	33		James Owen Dorsey
219	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Wateree (Guatari)	1,600	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
220	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Tlatskanai	1,600	1780			James Mooney
221	NE Woodlands	New England	Passamaquoddy	1,600	1690		320 warriors	Wendell
222	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Westo and Stono	1,600				James Mooney
223	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Dogrib	1,500	1875			Emile Petitot
224	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Attacapa	1,500	1650			James Mooney
225	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Otoe	1,500	1815		(300 warriors)	William Clark
226	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Sanpoil	1,500	1805		45+ houses	George Gibbs
227	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Wasco	1,500	1838			G. Hines
228	Subarctic & Arctic	Yukon, Canada	Hankutchin	1,500	1851		(three subdivisions x 100 warriors each)	John Richardson
229	NE Woodlands	New England	Podunk	1,500+	1675		(300 warriors fought in King Philip's War)	E. Stiles
230	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Saponi	1,500	1600	2		Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
231	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Waxhaw and Sugeree	1,500	1600	2		James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
232	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Manahoac	1,500	1600			James Mooney
233	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Washo	1,500	1800			A. L. Kroeber
234	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Bayogoula, Mugulasha and Quinipissa	1,500	1650			James Mooney
235	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Tohome	1,500	1700		300 warriors	Pierre d'Iberville
236	NE Woodlands	New England	Martha's Vineyard tribe	1,500	1600			James Mooney
237	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Siletz, Nestucca, Salmon River tribe	1,500	1780			James Mooney
238	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Lummi	1,300	1862			Myron Eells
239	Subarctic & Arctic	Alberta, Canada	Beaver (Tsattine)	1,250	1670		Also known as Dane-zaa	James Mooney
240	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Keewatin, Canada	Caribou-Eaters	1,250	1670			James Mooney
241	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Houma	1,225	1700			J. R. Swanton
242	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Monacan	1,200	1600			James Mooney
243	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Tutelo	1,200	1600			Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
244	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Occaneechi	1,200	1600			James Mooney
245	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Cheraw	1,200	1600			James Mooney
246	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Taensa	1,200	1700			Benard de La Harpe
247	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Machapunga	1,200	1600	3		Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
248	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Quinaielt	1,200	1805		70 houses	Lewis and Clark
249	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Arkokisa	1,200	1746	5	300 families in 5 rancherias	H. E. Bolton
250	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Kuitsh	1,200	1820	21		Jeddediah Morse and James Owen Dorsey
251	Subarctic & Arctic	Yukon, Canada	Tutchone	1,100	1910			Frederick Webb Hodge
252	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Waccamaw	1,050	1715	6	210 warriors	W. J. Rivers
253	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Guarugunve & Cuchiyaga	1,040	1570		(they inhabited Florida Keys)	Lopez de Velasco
254	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Hare	1,000+	1850			Ludwik Krzywicki
255	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Pamlico (Pomouik)	1,000	1600			James Mooney
256	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Neusiok & Coree	1,000	1600	5		James Mooney
257	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Chatot	1,000+	1650			Ludwik Krzywicki
258	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Cape Fear Indians	1,000	1600			James Mooney
259	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Santee	1,000	1600	2+		James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
260	Great Plains	Texas Annexation	Bidai	1,000+	1745	7	(200+ warriors)	Athanase de Mezieres
261	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Ais & Tekesta	1,000	1650	6+		J. R. Swanton & James Mooney
262	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Jeaga & Mayaimi (Guacata)	1,000	1650	5+		J. R. Swanton & James Mooney
263	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Tocobaga	1,000	1650			James Mooney
264	SE Woodlands	Florida Purchase	Yustaga	1,000	1650			James Mooney
265	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Biloxi/Pascagoula/Moctobi	1,000	1650	4		James Mooney
266	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Moratoc	1,000	1600			Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
267	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Edisto	1,000	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
268	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Sechelt	1,000	1780			James Mooney
269	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Wahowpum	1,000	1844			Crawford in G. Wilkes
270	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Yojuane, Deadose	1,000	1745			H. E. Bolton
271	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Mayeye	1,000	1805		200 warriors	J. Sibley
272	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Dulchioni	1,000	1712		200 warriors	Andre Penicaut
273	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Okelousa	950	1650		Not to be confused with Opelousa	James Mooney
274	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Cushook	900	1780			James Mooney
275	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Aranama	870+	1778			Athanase de Mezieres
276	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Sewee	800+	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
277	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Congaree	800	1600			James Mooney
278	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Sissipahaw	800	1600	1		James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
279	NE Woodlands	New England	Paugussett	800	1600			C. Thomas in F. W. Hodge
280	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Smacksop	800	1805		24 houses	Lewis and Clark
281	Subarctic & Arctic	Yukon, Canada	Nahani of Yukon	800	1670			James Mooney
282	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Methow	800	1780			Robert H. Ruby [112] and J. Mooney
283	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Snoqualmie	750	1862			Indian Affairs 1862
284	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Meherrin	700	1600			James Mooney
285	Subarctic & Arctic	Ontario, Canada	Abittibi	700	1736		(140 warriors)	Michel de La Chauvignerie
286	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Quileute	650	1868			W. B. Gosnell
287	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Skaquamish	650	1862			Indian Affairs 1862
288	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Appalousa (Opelousa)	650	1715		130 warriors, 52 cabins	Baudry de Lozieres
289	Subarctic & Arctic	Northwest Territories, Canada	Yellowknives	600+	1877		70+ tents	Emile Petitot
290	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Etiwaw (also Etiwan)	600	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
291	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Woccon	600	1701	2	(120 warriors)	John Lawson, "History of Carolina"
292	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Peedee	600	1600	1		James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
293	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Keyauwee	600	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
294	Southwest	Mexican Cession	Sobaipuri	600	1680			James Mooney
295	NE Woodlands	New England	Quinnipiac	550	1730			John William De Forest
296	NE Woodlands	New England	Manisses	500	1500			Capers Jones [103]
297	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Takelma and Latgawa	500	1780			James Mooney
298	NE Woodlands	New England	Tunxis	500	1600		(100 warriors)	John William De Forest
299	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Chiaha in South Carolina	500	1600			Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
300	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Hatteras	500	1600			Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
301	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Eno	500	1600	1		James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
302	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Shakori	500	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
303	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Adshusheer	500	1600			James Mooney & Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
304	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Twana	500	1841			Myron Eells
305	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Chetco	500	1800	9	42 houses in 9 villages	James Owen Dorsey and Ludwik Krzywicki
306	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Cahinnio	500+	1687	1	100 cabins in one village	Ludwik Krzywicki
307	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Shasta Costa	500+	1750	33	33 small hamlets	James Owen Dorsey and Ludwik Krzywicki
308	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Patuxent	500	1600		100 warriors	William Strachey and John Smith
309	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Mattapanient	500	1600		100 warriors	William Strachey and John Smith
310	NE Woodlands	Quebec, Canada	Atikamekw (Attikamegue)	500+	1647		over 30 canoes	Ludwik Krzywicki
311	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Wicocomoco	500	1600		100 warriors	John Smith
312	Subarctic & Arctic	Yukon, Canada	Tukkuthkutchin	500	1857			Ludwik Krzywicki
313	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Tsesaut	500	1835			Ludwik Krzywicki
314	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Tocwogh	500	1600		100 warriors	John Smith
315	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Sutaio	500	1829		100 warriors	Peter Buell Porter
316	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Musqueam	500	1780			Ludwik Krzywicki
317	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Moyawance	500	1600		100 warriors	John Smith
318	Great Plains	Texas Annexation	Akokisa	500	1690			James Mooney
319	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Quaitso	500	1830			Hall J. Kelley
320	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Strongbow	500	1780			James Mooney
321	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Topinish	450	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
322	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Nooksak	450	1854			Isaac Ingalls Stevens
323	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Kathlamet (Cathlamet)	450	1780			James Mooney
324	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Ettchaottine	435	1858			F. W. Hodge
325	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Skaddal	400	1847			W. Robertson
326	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Luckton	400	1830			Hall J. Kelley
327	NE Woodlands	New England	Wangunk	400	1600			James Mooney
328	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Avoyel	400	1698		32 cabins (and 80 warriors)	J. R. Swanton
329	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Chimakum	400	1780			James Mooney
330	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Mauvais Monde (Etquaotinne)	400	1670		Also spelled Tsethaottine	James Mooney
331	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Squaxon	375	1857			John Ross Browne
332	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Kwantlen	375+	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
333	Subarctic & Arctic	British Columbia, Canada	Tsetsaut	350	1780			James Mooney
334	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Pilalt (Cheam)	304	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
335	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Saukaulutucks	300	1860			R. Mayne
336	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Chehalis and Kwaiailk	300	1850			Joseph Lane
337	Great Plains	Louisiana Purchase	Amahami	300	1811			H. M. Brackenridge
338	Subarctic & Arctic	Nunavut, Canada	Southampton Island Inuit	300	1670			James Mooney
339	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Clatsop	300	1780			James Mooney
340	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Charcowah	300	1780			James Mooney
341	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Sheep (Esbataottine)	300	1670			James Mooney
342	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Semiahmoo	300	1780			James Mooney
343	NE Woodlands	Middle Colonies	Ozinies	255	1608		They lived in Delaware and Maryland	Maryland at a glance: Native Americans [113]
344	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Umatilla	250	1858			Indian Affairs 1858
345	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Washa	250	1715		50 warriors	Baudry de Lozieres
346	Subarctic & Arctic	District of Mackenzie, Canada	Nahani in District of Mackenzie	250	1906			John R. Swanton
347	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Naniaba	250	1730		50 warriors	Regis de Rouillet
348	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Squannaroo	240	1847			W. Robertson
349	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Molala	240	1857			J. W. P. Huntington
350	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Nacisi	230	1700		23 houses	Bienville
351	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Secowocomoco	200	1600		40 warriors	John Smith
352	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Copalis	200	1805		10 houses	Lewis and Clark
353	NE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Ahwajiaway	200	1805			Extinct native american tribes of North America [101]
354	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Kwalhioqua	200	1780			James Mooney
355	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Juntata	200	1648		40 warriors	R. Evelin
356	SE Woodlands	Louisiana Purchase	Chawasha	200	1715		40 warriors	Baudry de Lozieres
357	SE Woodlands	Southern Colonies	Winyaw	180	1715	1	(36 warriors and one village)	Carolina - The Native Americans [100]
358	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Nanoose	159	1839			HBC Indian Census 1839
359	NE Woodlands	Ontario, Canada	Totontaratonhronon	150	1640		15 houses	J. Lalemant
360	Northwest Plateau	British Columbia, Canada	Nicola Athapaskans (Stuichamukh)	150	1780	3	Also spelled Stuwihamuq	Franz Boas & J. Mooney
361	Great Basin	Mexican Cession	Chemehuevi	145	1907			James Mooney
362	Northwest Coast	British Columbia, Canada	Sumas	132	1895	3		Canadian Indian Affairs
363	Northwest Plateau	Oregon Country	Wiam	130	1850			Joseph Lane
364	SE Woodlands	Texas Annexation	Cujane	100	1750			H. E. Bolton
365	Northwest Coast	Oregon Country	Hoh	100	1875			Indian Affairs 1875
366	NE Woodlands	Old Northwest	Noquet	100	1721			N. Y. Col. Dcts., VI. 622
367	SE Woodlands	Trans-Appalachian	Choula	40	1722			Benard de La Harpe
368	California	Mexican Cession	California Native tribes	340,000	1769			Cook, Jones & Codding, [114] Field [115]
369	Subarctic & Arctic	Alaska	Alaska Native tribes	93,800	1750			Steve Langdon [116]

The total peak population size only for the tribes listed in this table is 3,513,175 in the US and Canada (including 508,625 in Canada). This number is strikingly similar to Snow's 2001 estimate for the US and Canada ^[46] as well as to Alchon's and Denevan's estimates. ^{[45] [47]}

Pre-Columbian Americas

Main article: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also: Y-DNA haplogroups in indigenous peoples of the Americas

Statue of Cuauhtemoc in el Zócalo, Mexico City.

Genetic diversity and population structure in the American land mass using DNA micro-satellite markers (genotype) sampled from North, Central, and South America have been analyzed against similar data available from other Indigenous populations worldwide. ^{[117] [118]} The Amerindian populations show a lower genetic diversity than populations from other continental regions. ^[118] Decreasing genetic diversity with increasing geographic distance from the Bering Strait can be seen, as well as a decreasing genetic similarity to Siberian populations from Alaska (genetic entry point). ^{[117] [118]} A higher level of diversity and lower level of population structure in western South America compared to eastern South America is observed. ^{[117] [118]} A relative lack of differentiation between Mesoamerican and Andean populations is a scenario that implies coastal routes were easier than inland routes for migrating peoples (Paleo-Indians) to traverse. ^[117] The overall pattern that is emerging suggests that the Americas were recently colonized by a small number of individuals (effective size of about 70–250), and then they grew by a factor of 10 over 800–1,000 years. ^{[119] [120]} The data also show that there have been genetic exchanges between Asia, the Arctic and Greenland since the initial peopling of the Americas. ^{[120] [121]} A new study in early 2018 suggests that the effective population size of the original founding population of Native Americans was about 250 people. ^{[122] [123]}

Depopulation by Old World diseases

See also: Influx of disease in the Caribbean, Native American disease and epidemics, and History of smallpox § Epidemics in the Americas

One estimate of population collapse in Central Mexico brought on by successive epidemics in the early colonial period. Note: Other scholars' estimates vary widely.

Early explanations for the population decline of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas include the brutal practices of the Spanish conquistadores, as recorded by the Spaniards themselves, such as the encomienda system, which was ostensibly set up to protect people from warring tribes as well as to teach them the Spanish language and the Catholic religion, but in practice was tantamount to serfdom and slavery. ^[124] The most notable account was that of the Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, whose writings vividly depict Spanish atrocities committed in particular against the Taínos. ^[125] The second European explanation was a perceived divine approval, in which God removed the natives as part of His "divine plan" to make way for a new Christian civilization. Many Native Americans viewed their troubles in a religious framework within their own belief systems. ^[126]

According to later academics such as Noble David Cook, a community of scholars began "quietly accumulating piece by piece data on early epidemics in the Americas and their relation to the subjugation of native peoples." Scholars like Cook believe that widespread epidemic disease, to which the natives had no prior exposure or resistance, was the primary cause of the massive population decline of the Native Americans. ^[127] One of the most devastating diseases was smallpox, but other deadly diseases included typhus, measles, influenza, bubonic plague, cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, mumps, yellow fever and pertussis, which were chronic in Eurasia. ^[128]

However, recently scholars have studied the link between physical colonial violence such as warfare, displacement, and enslavement, and the proliferation of disease among Native populations. ^{[4] [129] [130]} For example, according to Coquille scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker, "In recent decades, however, researchers challenge the idea that disease is solely responsible for the rapid Indigenous population decline. The research identifies other aspects of European contact that had profoundly negative impacts on Native peoples' ability to survive foreign invasion: war, massacres, enslavement, overwork, deportation, the loss of will to live or reproduce, malnutrition and starvation from the breakdown of trade networks, and the loss of subsistence food production due to land loss." ^[131]

Further, Andrés Reséndez of the University of California, Davis points out that, even though the Spanish were aware of deadly diseases such as smallpox, there is no mention of them in the New World until 1519, implying that, until that date, epidemic disease played no significant part in the depopulation of the Antilles. The practices of forced labor, brutal punishment, and inadequate necessities of life, were the initial and major reasons for depopulation. ^[132] Jason Hickel estimates that a third of Arawak workers died every six months from forced labor in these mines. ^[133] In this way, "slavery has emerged as a major killer" of the indigenous populations of the Caribbean between 1492 and 1550, as it set the conditions for diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and malaria to flourish. ^[132] Unlike the populations of Europe who rebounded following the Black Death, no such rebound occurred for the Indigenous populations. ^[132]

Similarly, historian Jeffrey Ostler at the University of Oregon has argued that population collapses in North America throughout colonization were not due mainly to lack of Native immunity to European disease. Instead, he claims that "When severe epidemics did hit, it was often less because Native bodies lacked immunity than because European colonialism disrupted Native communities and damaged their resources, making them more vulnerable to pathogens." In specific regard to Spanish colonization of northern Florida and southeastern Georgia, Native peoples there "were subject to forced labor and, because of poor living conditions and malnutrition, succumbed to wave after wave of unidentifiable diseases." Further, in relation to British colonization in the Northeast, Algonquian speaking tribes in Virginia and Maryland "suffered from a variety of diseases, including malaria, typhus, and possibly smallpox." These diseases were not solely a case of Native susceptibility, however, because "as colonists took their resources, Native communities were subject to malnutrition, starvation, and social stress, all making people more vulnerable to pathogens. Repeated epidemics created additional trauma and population loss, which in turn disrupted the provision of healthcare." Such conditions would continue, alongside rampant disease in Native communities, throughout colonization, the formation of the United States, and multiple forced removals, as Ostler explains that many scholars "have yet to come to grips with how U.S. expansion created conditions that made Native communities acutely vulnerable to pathogens and how severely disease impacted them. ... Historians continue to ignore the catastrophic impact of disease and its relationship to U.S. policy and action even when it is right before their eyes." ^[6]

Historian David Stannard says that by "focusing almost entirely on disease ... contemporary authors increasingly have created the impression that the eradication of those tens of millions of people was inadvertent—a sad, but both inevitable and "unintended consequence" of human migration and progress," and asserts that their destruction "was neither inadvertent nor inevitable," but the result of microbial pestilence and purposeful genocide working in tandem. ^[134] He also wrote: ^[135]

...Despite frequent undocumented assertions that disease was responsible for the great majority of indigenous deaths in the Americas, there does not exist a single scholarly work that even pretends to demonstrate this claim on the basis of solid evidence. And that is because there is no such evidence, anywhere. The supposed truism that more native people died from disease than from direct face-to-face killing or from gross mistreatment or other concomitant derivatives of that brutality such as starvation, exposure, exhaustion, or despair is nothing more than a scholarly article of faith...

Chief Sitting Bull.

In contrast, historian Russel Thornton has pointed out that there were disastrous epidemics and population losses during the first half of the sixteenth century "resulting from incidental contact, or even without direct contact, as disease spread from one American Indian tribe to another." ^[136] Thornton has also challenged higher Indigenous population estimates, which are based on the Malthusian assumption that "populations tend to increase to, and beyond, the limits of the food available to them at any particular level of technology." ^[137]

The European colonization of the Americas resulted in the deaths of so many people it contributed to climatic change and temporary global cooling, according to scientists from University College London. ^{[138] [139]} A century after the arrival of Christopher Columbus, some 90% of Indigenous Americans had perished from "wave after wave of disease", along with mass slavery and war, in what researchers have described as the "great dying". ^[140] According to one of the researchers, UCL Geography Professor Mark Maslin, the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: "the depopulation of the Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world. It also allowed for the Industrial Revolution and for Europeans to continue that domination." ^[141]

Biological warfare

When Old World diseases were first carried to the Americas at the end of the fifteenth century, they spread throughout the southern and northern hemispheres, leaving the Indigenous populations in near ruins. ^{[128] [142]} No evidence has been discovered that the earliest Spanish colonists and missionaries deliberately attempted to infect the American natives, and some efforts were made to limit the devastating effects of disease before it killed off what remained of their labor force (compelled to work under the encomienda system). ^{[128] [142]} The cattle introduced by the Spanish contaminated various water reserves which Native Americans dug in the fields to accumulate rainwater. In response, the Franciscans and Dominicans created public fountains and aqueducts to guarantee access to drinking water. ^[21] But when the Franciscans lost their privileges in 1572, many of these fountains were no longer guarded and so deliberate well poisoning may have happened. ^[21] Although no proof of such poisoning has been found, some historians believe the decrease of the population correlates with the end of religious orders' control of the water. ^[21]

In the centuries that followed, accusations and discussions of biological warfare were common. Well-documented accounts of incidents involving both threats and acts of deliberate infection are very rare, but may have occurred more frequently than scholars have previously acknowledged. ^{[143] [144]} Many of the instances likely went unreported, and it is possible that documents relating to such acts were deliberately destroyed, ^[144] or sanitized. ^{[145] [146]} By the middle of the 18th century, colonists had the knowledge and technology to attempt biological warfare with the smallpox virus. They well understood the concept of quarantine, and that contact with the sick could infect the healthy with smallpox, and those who survived the illness would not be infected again. Whether the threats were carried out, or how effective individual attempts were, is uncertain. ^{[128] [144] [145]}

One such threat was delivered by fur trader James McDougall, who is quoted as saying to a gathering of local chiefs, "You know the smallpox. Listen: I am the smallpox chief. In this bottle I have it confined. All I have to do is to pull the cork, send it forth among you, and you are dead men. But this is for my enemies and not my friends." ^[147] Likewise, another fur trader threatened Pawnee Indians that if they didn't agree to certain conditions, "he would let the smallpox out of a bottle and destroy them." The Reverend Isaac McCoy was quoted in his History of Baptist Indian Missions as saying that the white men had deliberately spread smallpox among the Indians of the southwest, including the Pawnee tribe, and the havoc it made was reported to General Clark and the Secretary of War. ^{[147] [148]} Artist and writer George Catlin observed that Native Americans were also suspicious of vaccination, "They see white men urging the operation so earnestly they decide that it must be some new mode or trick of the pale face by which they hope to gain some new advantage over them." ^[149] So great was the distrust of the settlers that the Mandan chief Four Bears denounced the white man, whom he had previously treated as brothers, for deliberately bringing the disease to his people. ^{[150] [151] [152]}

During the siege of British-held Fort Pitt in the Seven Years' War, Colonel Henry Bouquet ordered his men to take smallpox-infested blankets from their hospital and gave them as gifts to two neutral Lenape Indian dignitaries during a peace settlement negotiation, according to the entry in the Captain's ledger, "To convey the Smallpox to the Indians". ^{[145] [153] [154]} In the following weeks, Sir Jeffrey Amherst conspired with Bouquet to "Extirpate this Execreble Race" of Native Americans, writing, "Could it not be contrived to send the small pox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them." His Colonel agreed to try. ^{[144] [153]}

Most scholars have asserted that the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic was "started among the tribes of the upper Missouri River by failure to quarantine steamboats on the river", ^[147] and Captain Pratt of the St. Peter "was guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences." ^[151] However, some sources attribute the 1836–40 epidemic to the deliberate communication of smallpox to Native Americans, with historian Ann F. Ramenofsky writing, "Variola Major can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem." ^[155] In Brazil, well into the 20th century, deliberate infection attacks continued as Brazilian settlers and miners transported infections intentionally to the native groups whose lands they coveted. ^[142]

Vaccination

After Edward Jenner's 1796 demonstration that the smallpox vaccination worked, the technique became better known and smallpox became less deadly in the United States and elsewhere. Many colonists and natives were vaccinated, although, in some cases, officials tried to vaccinate natives only to discover that the disease was too widespread to stop. At other times, trade demands led to broken quarantines. In other cases, natives refused vaccination because of suspicion of whites. The first international healthcare expedition in history was the Balmis Expedition which had the aim of vaccinating Indigenous peoples against smallpox all along the Spanish Empire in 1803. In 1831, government officials vaccinated the Yankton Sioux at Sioux Agency . The Santee Sioux refused vaccination and many died. ^[36]

Depopulation by European conquest

War and violence

Main article: American Indian Wars

Further information: Spanish colonization of the Americas, Arauco War, Chichimeca War, and Conquest of the Desert

An 1899 chromolithograph of U.S. cavalry pursuing American Indians, artist unknown.

An 1899 chromolithograph from the Werner Company of Akron, Ohio titled Custer Massacre at Big Horn, Montana – June 25, 1876.

While epidemic disease was a leading factor of the population decline of the American Indigenous peoples after 1492, there were other contributing factors, all of them related to European contact and colonization. One of these factors was warfare. According to demographer Russell Thornton, although many people died in wars over the centuries, and war sometimes contributed to the near extinction of certain tribes, warfare and death by other violent means was a comparatively minor cause of overall native population decline. ^[156]

From the U.S. Bureau of the Census in 1894, wars between the government and the Indigenous peoples ranged over 40 in number over the previous 100 years. These wars cost the lives of approximately 19,000 white people, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians, including men, women, and children. They safely estimated that the amount of Native people who were killed or wounded was actually around fifty percent more than what was recorded. ^[157]

There is some disagreement among scholars about how widespread warfare was in pre-Columbian America, ^[158] but there is general agreement that war became deadlier after the arrival of the Europeans and their firearms.^{[ citation needed ]} The South or Central American infrastructure allowed for thousands of European conquistadors and tens of thousands of their Indian auxiliaries to attack the dominant Indigenous civilization. Empires such as the Incas depended on a highly centralized administration for the distribution of resources. Disruption caused by the war and the colonization hampered the traditional economy, and possibly led to shortages of food and materials. ^[159] Across the western hemisphere, war with various Native American civilizations constituted alliances based out of both necessity or economic prosperity and, resulted in mass-scale intertribal warfare. ^[160] European colonization in the North American continent also contributed to a number of wars between Native Americans, who fought over which of them should have first access to new technology and weaponry—like in the Beaver Wars. ^[161]

Exploitation

Main article: European enslavement of indigenous peoples of the Americas

D'Albertis Castle, Genoa, Museum of World Cultures

Some Spaniards objected to the encomienda system of labor, notably Bartolomé de las Casas, who insisted that the Indigenous people were humans with souls and rights. Because of many revolts and military encounters, Emperor Charles V helped relieve the strain on both the native laborers and the Spanish vanguards probing the Caribana for military and diplomatic purposes. ^[162] Later on New Laws were promulgated in Spain in 1542 to protect isolated natives, but the abuses in the Americas were never entirely or permanently abolished. The Spanish also employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita , ^[163] and treated their subjects as something between slaves and serfs. Serfs stayed to work the land; slaves were exported to the mines, where large numbers of them died. In other areas the Spaniards replaced the ruling Aztecs and Incas and divided the conquered lands among themselves ruling as the new feudal lords with often, but unsuccessful lobbying to the viceroys of the Spanish crown to pay Tlaxcalan war demnities. The infamous Bandeirantes from São Paulo, adventurers mostly of mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves. Serfdom existed as such in parts of Latin America well into the 19th century, past independence. ^[164] Historian Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola. ^[165] Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly. ^{[164] [165]} and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to. ^[165] He further contends that enslavement of Native Americans was in fact the primary cause of their depopulation in Spanish territories; ^[165] that the majority of Indians enslaved were women and children compared to the enslavement of Africans which mostly targeted adult males and in turn they were sold at a 50% to 60% higher price, ^[166] and that 2,462,000 to 4,985,000 Amerindians were enslaved between Columbus's arrival and 1900. ^{[167] [166]}

Massacres

Main article: List of Indian massacres in North America

See also: Native American genocide in the United States, California genocide, and Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859

Mass grave of Lakota dead after the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre.

Conquest of Mexico

• The Pequot War in early New England.
• In mid-19th century Argentina, post-independence leaders Juan Manuel de Rosas and Julio Argentino Roca engaged in what they presented as a "Conquest of the Desert" against the natives of the Argentinian interior, leaving over 1,300 Indigenous dead. ^{[168] [169]}
• While some California tribes were settled on reservations, others were hunted down and massacred by 19th century American settlers. It is estimated that at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians, mostly occurring in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). ^{[170] [171]}

Displacement and disruption

Main articles: Indian removal and Trail of Tears

Throughout history, Indigenous people have been subjected to the repeated and forced removal from their land. Beginning in the 1830s, there was the relocation of an estimated 100,000 Indigenous people in the United States called the "Trail of Tears". ^[172] The tribes affected by this specific removal were the Five Civilized Tribes: The Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole. The treaty of New Echota, ^[173] was enacted, which stated that the United States "would give Cherokee land west of the Mississippi in exchange for $5,000,000". ^[172] According to Jeffrey Ostler, "Of the 80,000 Native people who were forced west from 1830 into the 1850s, between 12,000 and 17,000 perished." Ostler states that "the large majority died of interrelated factors of starvation, exposure and disease". ^[174]

In addition to the removal of the Southern Tribes, there were multiple other removals of Northern Tribes also known as "Trails of Tears." For example, "In the free labor states of the North, federal and state officials, supported by farmers, speculators and business interests, evicted Shawnees, Delawares, Senecas, Potawatomis, Miamis, Wyandots, Ho-Chunks, Ojibwes, Sauks and Meskwakis." These Nations were moved West of the Mississippi into what is now known as Eastern Kansas, and numbered 17,000 on arrival. According to Ostler, "by 1860, their numbers had been cut in half" because of low fertility, high infant mortality, and increased disease caused by conditions such as polluted drinking water, few resources, and social stress. ^[174]

Ostler also writes that the areas that Northern tribes were removed to were already inhabited: "The areas west of the Mississippi River were home to other Indigenous nations— Osages, Kanzas, Omahas, Ioways, Otoes and Missourias. To make room for thousands of people from the East, the government dispossessed these nations of much their lands." Ostler writes that in 1840, when Northern Nations were moved onto their land, "The combined population of these western nations was 9,000 ... 20 years later, it had fallen to 6,000." ^[174]

Later apologies by government officials

See also: Bureau of Indian Affairs and Canadian Indian residential school system § Canadian government

On 8 September 2000, the head of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) formally apologized for the agency's participation in the ethnic cleansing of Western tribes. ^{[175] [176] [177]} In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the "California Genocide." Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books." ^[178]

See also

• Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
• Canada portal
• Civilizations portal
• United States portal

• Indigenous peoples in Canada
• Native Americans in the United States
• History of Native Americans in the United States
• List of Indian massacres
• List of Indian reserves in Canada by population
• List of Indian reservations in the United States
• Amazonas before the Inca Empire
• American Indian Wars
• Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Conquest of the Desert
• Genocide of indigenous peoples
• Genocides in the Americas
• Guatemalan genocide
• Selknam genocide
• Smallpox epidemics in the Americas
• Trail of Tears
• Indigenous peoples
• Uncontacted peoples
• Racism in Canada#Indigenous peoples
• Racism in North America
• Racism in South America
• Racism in the United States#Native Americans

Notes

1. Extrapolated from 30,000 warriors (× 5) in year 1762, according to James Gorrell. Such high population appears to be confirmed by French Jesuits who visited forty Sioux villages in 1660 and found 5,000 men only in five of them (on average 1,000 men per village). Almost a century after Gorrell's estimate, in 1841, George Catlin estimated the Sioux as up to 50,000 people, and mentioned that they had just lost approx. 8,000 dead to smallpox a few years prior.
2. Extrapolated from 25,000 warriors (x5) in year 1718, according to Le Page du Pratz.
3. They had 60 towns and 20,000 warriors. One of their towns – Cahokia – contained 400 lodges and was inhabited by 1,800 warriors.
4. "The epidemic of 1837–38 was disastrous, approx. 15,000 Blackfeet people fell victim to the disease."
5. Five Nations, on average 14,000 people per nation around year 1690 according to L. A. de Lahontan. And in 1609 the Iroquois population was estimated by Marc Lescarbot at 8,000 warriors (that is around 40,000 people). On the contrary Lewis H. Morgan in his 1851 book estimated the Iroquois population in year 1650 at only 25,000 people - including 10,000 Seneca, 5,000 Mohawk, 4,000 Onondaga, 3,000 Oneida and 3,000 Cayuga. The Seneca were also estimated at 13,000 people in year 1672 and 15,000 in year 1687. Not all of Iroquois 226 villages were occupied at the same time as the Iroquois moved villages every five to twenty years.
6. They had approx. 7 pueblos (towns), one of which – Oraibi (possibly the largest of all) – had 14,000 inhabitants before an epidemic.
7. It was also reported they had 25–32 towns or villages.
8. Extrapolated from 8,000 warriors × 5.
9. 38 villages (on average 130–150 lodges/cabins per village) with 7,600 warriors x 5 = 38,000 total population, not including the Arikara.
10. They had 6,000 warriors in 1730–35 (according to J. Adair) and also 6,000 warriors in 1738, but just 5,000 in 1740 (according to Ga. Hist. Coll., II). Colonel James Oglethorpe confirms that they had 5,000 warriors in 1739 (Ga. Coll. Rec., V). Also according to Ga. Coll. Rec., V an epidemic reduced them "by almost one-half" in 1738, but this source doesn't specify how numerous they were before the epidemic. Perhaps this source exaggerates the casualties caused by that epidemic, and in fact it killed just around 1,000 warriors.
11. They had approx. 6,000 warriors and 24 towns.
12. They inhabited up to 11 pueblos (towns).
13. They had approx. 4,000 warriors and ca. 40 villages.
14. Later an epidemic ravaged them in 1618.
15. They inhabited up to 7 pueblos (towns).
16. Extrapolated from 3,000 warriors × 5.

References

Citations

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Bibliography

Books

• Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN   978-0-7734-5220-6.
• Cook, Noble David (1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-62208-0.
• Hanson, Victor Davis (2002). Carnage and culture: landmark battles in the rise of Western power. Anchor Books. ISBN   978-0-385-50052-4.
• Henige, David P. (1998). Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indian Contact Population Debate. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN   978-0-8061-3044-6.
• Jennings, Francis (1993). The Founders of America: How Indians discovered the land, pioneered in it, and created great classical civilizations, how they were plunged into a Dark Age by invasion and conquest, and how they are reviving. New York: Norton. ISBN   978-0-393-03373-1.
• Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN   978-1-4000-4006-3.
• Ramenofsky, Ann (1988). Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN   978-0-8263-0997-6.
• Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN   978-0-547-64098-3.
• Royal, Robert. 1492 and All That: Political Manipulations of History. Washington, D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1992. ^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Shoemaker, Nancy (1999). American Indian population recovery in the twentieth century . University of New Mexico Press. ISBN   978-0-8263-1919-7.
• Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN   978-0-19-508557-0.
• Stearn, E. Wagner and Allen E. Stearn. The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian. Boston: Humphries, 1945.^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Thornton, Russel (1987). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: ˜a Œpopulation History Since 1492. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN   978-0-8061-2074-4.

Online sources

• Lewy, Guenter. "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?", History News Network, originally published in Commentary.
• Lord, Lewis. How many people were here before Columbus? at the Wayback Machine (archived 22 September 2006), 10 August 1997.
• Rummel, R.J. Death by Government, Chapter 3: Pre-Twentieth Century Democide
• Stutz, Bruce. Megadeath in Mexico Discover, 21 February 2006.
• White, Matthew. "The Annihilation of the Native Americans". Amateur website, but reports data from scholarly sources.
• Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets "Lord Jeffrey Amherst's letters discussing germ warfare against American Indians" Retrieved February 2007

Further reading

• Alchon, Suzanne Austin (2003). A Pest in the Land. University of New Mexico Press.^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Cameron, Catherine M., Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund (eds.) (2015). Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. ^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN   978-0-7734-5220-6.
• Fagan, Brian M. (2005). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent . Thames & Hudson. ISBN   978-0-500-28532-9.
• Jones, David S. (2003). "Virgin Soils Revisited". The William and Mary Quarterly. 60 (4): 703–742. doi:10.2307/3491697. JSTOR   3491697.
• Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN   978-1-4000-4006-3.
• McNeill, William Hardy (1998). Plagues and peoples . Anchor. ISBN   978-0-385-12122-4.
• Sletcher, Michael 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005). ^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Rosenbaum, Alan S. (2018). Is the Holocaust unique?: perspectives on comparative genocide . Routledge.

External links

• Aboriginal peoples populations – Statistics Canada
• Article by Russell Thornton on American Indian population history in North America
• Article by Alan Rinding on Brazil's Indians
• Colonial Brazil: Portuguese, Tupi, etc
• Indigenous Genocide in the Brazilian Amazon
• The theft of Native Americans' land, in one animated map
• Indian land cession by years
• Pope Francis apologises for Catholic crimes against indigenous peoples during the colonisation of the Americas (2015)
• When Native Americans Were Slaughtered in the Name of 'Civilization'. History. March 2, 2018.