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Walter Gilbert is an American biochemist, physicist, molecular biology pioneer, and Nobel laureate.
Carl Richard Woese was an American microbiologist and biophysicist. Woese is famous for defining the Archaea in 1977 through a pioneering phylogenetic taxonomy of 16S ribosomal RNA, a technique that has revolutionized microbiology. He also originated the RNA world hypothesis in 1967, although not by that name. Woese held the Stanley O. Ikenberry Chair and was professor of microbiology at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign.
Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to genetics, which refers to the study of individual genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of all of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.
Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species. Because of the similarity of thinking and working with microorganisms other than bacteria, such as protozoa, fungi, and viruses, there has been a tendency for the field of bacteriology to extend as microbiology. The terms were formerly often used interchangeably. However, bacteriology can be classified as a distinct science.
The three-domain system is a taxonomic classification system that groups all cellular life into three domains, namely Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya, introduced by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis in 1990. The key difference from earlier classifications such as the two-empire system and the five-kingdom classification is the splitting of Archaea from Bacteria as completely different organisms. It has been challenged by the two-domain system that divides organisms into Bacteria and Archaea only, as Eukaryotes are considered a clade of Archaea.
The Thermoproteota are prokaryotes that have been classified as a phylum of the domain Archaea. Initially, the Thermoproteota were thought to be sulfur-dependent extremophiles but recent studies have identified characteristic Thermoproteota environmental rRNA indicating the organisms may be the most abundant archaea in the marine environment. Originally, they were separated from the other archaea based on rRNA sequences; other physiological features, such as lack of histones, have supported this division, although some crenarchaea were found to have histones. Until 2005 all cultured Thermoproteota had been thermophilic or hyperthermophilic organisms, some of which have the ability to grow at up to 113 °C. These organisms stain Gram negative and are morphologically diverse, having rod, cocci, filamentous and oddly-shaped cells. Recent evidence shows that some members of the Thermoproteota are methanogens.
In arithmetic combinatorics, Szemerédi's theorem is a result concerning arithmetic progressions in subsets of the integers. In 1936, Erdős and Turán conjectured that every set of integers A with positive natural density contains a k-term arithmetic progression for every k. Endre Szemerédi proved the conjecture in 1975.
Andreas Roland Grüntzig was a German radiologist and cardiologist, with foundational interest, training and research in epidemiology and angiology. He is known for being the first to develop successful balloon angioplasty for expanding lumens of narrowed arteries. He was born in Dresden.
Raymond Vahan Damadian was an American physician, medical researcher, and inventor of the first nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning machine.
The two-empire system was the top-level biological classification system in general use from the early 20th century until the establishment of the three-domain system. It classified cellular life into Prokaryota and Eukaryota as either "empires" or "superkingdoms". When the three-domain system was introduced, some biologists preferred the two-superkingdom system, claiming that the three-domain system overemphasized the division between Archaea and Bacteria. However, given the current state of knowledge and the rapid progress in biological scientific advancement, especially due to genetic analyses, that view has all but vanished.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing that involves electrophoresis and is based on the random incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication. After first being developed by Frederick Sanger and colleagues in 1977, it became the most widely used sequencing method for approximately 40 years. An automated instrument using slab gel electrophoresis and fluorescent labels was first commercialized by Applied Biosystems in March 1987. Later, automated slab gels were replaced with automated capillary array electrophoresis. More recently, higher volume Sanger sequencing has been replaced by next generation sequencing methods, especially for large-scale, automated genome analyses. However, the Sanger method remains in wide use for smaller-scale projects and for validation of deep sequencing results. It still has the advantage over short-read sequencing technologies in that it can produce DNA sequence reads of > 500 nucleotides and maintains a very low error rate with accuracies around 99.99%. Sanger sequencing is still actively being used in efforts for public health initiatives such as sequencing the spike protein from SARS-CoV-2 as well as for the surveillance of norovirus outbreaks through the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) CaliciNet surveillance network.
Dideoxynucleotides are chain-elongating inhibitors of DNA polymerase, used in the Sanger method for DNA sequencing. They are also known as 2',3' because both the 2' and 3' positions on the ribose lack hydroxyl groups, and are abbreviated as ddNTPs.
Hillel "Harry" Furstenberg is a German-born American-Israeli mathematician and professor emeritus at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is a member of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities and U.S. National Academy of Sciences and a laureate of the Abel Prize and the Wolf Prize in Mathematics. He is known for his application of probability theory and ergodic theory methods to other areas of mathematics, including number theory and Lie groups.
George Edward Fox is an astrobiologist, a Professor Emeritus and researcher at the University of Houston. He is an elected fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering and the International Astrobiology Society. Fox received his B.A. degree in 1967, and completed his Ph.D. degree in 1974; both in chemical engineering at Syracuse University.
16S ribosomal RNA is the RNA component of the 30S subunit of a prokaryotic ribosome. It binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and provides most of the SSU structure.
Cancer genome sequencing is the whole genome sequencing of a single, homogeneous or heterogeneous group of cancer cells. It is a biochemical laboratory method for the characterization and identification of the DNA or RNA sequences of cancer cell(s).
Woese's dogma is a principle of evolutionary biology first put forth by biophysicist Carl Woese in 1977. It states that the evolution of ribosomal RNA was a necessary precursor to the evolution of modern life forms. This led to the advancement of the phylogenetic tree of life consisting of three domains rather than the previously accepted two. While the existence of Eukarya and Prokarya were already accepted, Woese was responsible for the distinction between Bacteria and Archaea. Despite initial criticism and controversy surrounding his claims, Woese's three domain system, based on his work regarding the role of rRNA in the evolution of modern life, has become widely accepted.
Microbial phylogenetics is the study of the manner in which various groups of microorganisms are genetically related. This helps to trace their evolution. To study these relationships biologists rely on comparative genomics, as physiology and comparative anatomy are not possible methods.
The history of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) includes the work of many researchers who contributed to the discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and described the underlying physics of magnetic resonance imaging, starting early in the twentieth century. One researcher was American physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance, which is used in magnetic resonance imaging. MR imaging was invented by Paul C. Lauterbur who developed a mechanism to encode spatial information into an NMR signal using magnetic field gradients in September 1971; he published the theory behind it in March 1973.
The first universal common ancestor (FUCA) is a proposed non-cellular entity that was the earliest organism with a genetic code capable of biological translation of RNA molecules into peptides to produce proteins. Its descendents include the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) and every modern cell. FUCA would also be the ancestor of ancient sister lineages of LUCA, none of which have modern descendants, but which are thought to have horizontally transferred some of their genes into the genome of early descendants of LUCA.
References
- ↑ "Sequencing technologies". The Human Genome. Wellcome Trust. Archived from the original on November 9, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
- ↑ Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. (1977). "Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: The primary kingdoms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 74 (11). United States: 5088–90. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5088W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088 . PMC 432104 . PMID 270744.
- ↑ Sanger, F.; Nicklen, S.; Coulson, A. R. (1977). "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (12). United States: 5463–5467. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5463S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 . PMC 431765 . PMID 271968.
- ↑ "Commodore 64 computer".
- ↑ Long, Tony (June 5, 2007). "June 5, 1977: From a Little Apple a Mighty Industry Grows". Wired. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
- ↑ Reimer, Jeremy (December 14, 2005). "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures". Ars Technica. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
- ↑ Brian Randell, "The First Electronic Computer", New Scientist, 10 February 1977; IBM UK News, 4 March 1967; A. W. M. Coombs, "COLOSSUS and the History of Computing: Dollis Hill’s Important Contribution", The Post Office Electrical Engineers' Journal 70:2 (July 1977), pp. 108–110.
- ↑ Gardner, Martin (November 1977). "Mathematical Games" (PDF). Scientific American. 237 (5): 18–28. Bibcode:1977SciAm.237e..18G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1177-18. Rev. repr. in: Gardner, Martin (2001). The Colossal Book of Mathematics: Classic Puzzles, Paradoxes and Problems. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02023-6.
- ↑ Furstenberg, Hillel (1977). "Ergodic behavior of diagonal measures and a theorem of Szemerédi on arithmetic progressions". Journal d'Analyse Mathématique . 31: 204–256. doi: 10.1007/BF02813304 . MR 0498471. S2CID 120917478.
- ↑ Weiner, Joel L. (1977). "Global properties of spherical curves". Journal of Differential Geometry. 12 (3): 425–434. doi: 10.4310/jdg/1214434093 . MR 0514446.
- ↑ Damadian, R.; Goldsmith, M.; Minkoff, L. (1977). "NMR in cancer: XVI. Fonar image of the live human body". Physiological Chemistry and Physics. 9 (1): 97–100. PMID 909957.
- ↑ Hinshaw, D. S.; Bottomley, P. A.; Holland, G. N. (1977). "Radiographic thin-section image of the human wrist by nuclear magnetic resonance". Nature . 270 (5639): 722–723. Bibcode:1977Natur.270..722H. doi:10.1038/270722a0. PMID 593393. S2CID 4183336.
- ↑ "First MRI and ultrasound scanning". Benjamin S. Beck. Archived from the original on November 20, 2011. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
- ↑ "The "Indomitable" MRI". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on September 9, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
- ↑ "Biographical Sketch of Andreas Gruentzig (1939–1985)". Angioplasty.Org. Retrieved November 8, 2011.
- ↑ Meier, Bernhard; Bachmann, Dölf; Lüscher, Thomas F. (February 8, 2003). "25 years of coronary angioplasty: almost a fairy tale". The Lancet . 361 (9356): 527. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12470-1 . PMID 12583964. S2CID 19237951 . Retrieved November 8, 2011.
- ↑ Waldman, Thomas A. (2003). "Immunotherapy: past, present and future" (PDF). Nature Medicine . 9 (3): 269–277. doi: 10.1038/nm0303-269 . PMID 12612576. S2CID 9745527 . Retrieved March 10, 2005.
- ↑ Herb, S.W.; Hom, D.; Lederman, L.; et al. (1977). "Observation of a Dimuon Resonance at 9.5 GeV in 400-GeV Proton-Nucleus Collisions". Physical Review Letters . 39 (5): 252. Bibcode:1977PhRvL..39..252H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.252. OSTI 1155396.