Argiope keyserlingi

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St Andrew's cross spider
Female St Andrew's Cross Spider - Argiope keyserlingi.jpg
Juvenile female Argiope keyserlingi from Brisbane
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Araneidae
Genus: Argiope
Species:
A. keyserlingi
Binomial name
Argiope keyserlingi
Karsch, 1878

Argiope keyserlingi is a species of orb-web spider found on the east coast of Australia, from Victoria to northern Queensland. [1] It is very similar in appearance to a closely related north Queensland species, Argiope aetherea . A. keyserlingi is commonly found in large populations in suburban parks and gardens, particularly among the leaves of Lomandra longifolia . Like many species of orb-web spiders, A. keyserlingi shows considerable sexual dimorphism, with the females being many times larger than the males. Mature females can be seen during the summer, and seeing multiple males on the web of one female is not uncommon.

Contents

A. keyserlingi is commonly known as the St. Andrew's cross spider, due to the construction of bands of silk forming the arms of an X-shaped cross, similar to the one upon which St. Andrew is traditionally said to have been crucified. Juveniles of this species sometimes build a spiral-shaped pattern of silk. [2] Referred to as web decorations or stabilimenta, these bands are thought to increase the species' prey capture rate, but as in other species, they have been found to protect the spider against predators.

A. keyserlingi is an important model species in studies of spider ecology and behaviour. Using this species, scientists have investigated sperm competition, sexual size dimorphism, cryptic female choice, the role of pheromones in mating behaviour, and the function and evolution of web decorations. [3] [4] [5] [6]

Its main predators in Sydney are mantids and birds. [7]

This type of orb-weaver is cathemeral. [8]

Taxonomy

The spider was named by Fredrich Karsch in 1878 after the mythological Greek character of Argiope, a nymph from the town Eleusis in southern Greece. [9] The specific name keyserlingi was chosen to honor arachnologist Eugen von Keyserling. [10]

Description

Females of the species vary from 10 to 16 mm in size. Their glossy carapaces consist of silver, yellow, red, and black bands on their upper segment with two horizontal yellow belts beneath. Males of the species generally vary from 3 to 4 mm in size. They are brown and pearly coloured. St. Andrew's cross spiders rest with their legs oriented in pairs. [11]

A photograph of the underside of a female St Andrew's cross spider Argiope keyserlingi, St Andrew's Cross Spider, Sydney.JPG
A photograph of the underside of a female St Andrew's cross spider

Distribution and habitat

The St Andrew's cross spider can be found mostly in rainforest margins, open forests, and heathlands of eastern Australia. [11] They can also be found in the northern segment of the Northern Territory, in the northern segment of Tasmania, in the western segment of Western Australia, near Tedi River of Papua New Guinea, on the Malakula island of Vanuatu, and on Lord Howe Island. [12] They construct medium-sized webs on low, shrubby vegetation. [11]

Individuals tend to prefer closed habitats, with preferences being determined by foliage density and predator density. They avoid placing their webs within or between trees when there is bird presence. [6] Juveniles are exclusively found in closed habitats, likely to avoid insectivores like birds and lizards and to find more favourable vegetation for building webs. [6] A. keyserlingi may move into open habitats as subadults or adults, possibly due to requiring larger prey to sustain growth. [6]

Web

A female St Andrew's Cross spider on her web with its distinct X-shaped decorations. Argiope keyserlingi 0095.jpg
A female St Andrew's Cross spider on her web with its distinct X-shaped decorations.

The web of the orb-weaving spider possesses meandering, bluish-white ribbons consisting of silk that can form either a full or partial cross through the center of the web. The web decorations are usually cruciform, and are comprised zig-zag silk bands. The purpose of the stabilimentum has long perplexed biologists, who first thought that the stabilimentum's purpose was to strengthen the web. Other ideas associate it with capturing prey or evading its predators. [11]

The web patterns of A. keyserlingi can be highly variable and context-dependent, even within the same individual. The size of the web increases with the spider's size, but the size of the web decorations does not increase based on web size. [13] A. keyserlingi will reconstruct their webs daily or every few days, depending on damage, [14] [15] [13] with the frequency decreasing when exposed to predators or preparing to moult. [15] [13] If the web hasn't been destroyed (e.g. by predators or weather), the spider will consume the silk of the old web, allowing them to recycle the materials for construction of a new web. [14]

Web architecture

The architecture of the web is influenced by several factors, including the availability of space, air temperature, and prey abundance. [6] A. keyserlingi also adjusts the size and design of their webs depending on their feeding history. Food-deprived spiders invest more energy in web-building by producing more silk to increase their chances of catching prey. They tend to construct larger webs with a denser spiral arrangement, [16] presumably to increase the likelihood of prey capture. [17] [18] In contrast, food-satiated spiders build smaller webs with larger mesh sizes, [16] which might help reduce exposure to predators [19] and conserve energy for reproduction. [20]

While the design of the stabilimentum is independent of the web's overall arrangement, [6] it is affected by factors such as prey populations, [6] light intensity, and temperature. [21] [22] Spiders also modify their web decoration depending on food availability. Specifically, when food is more scarce, they reduce the number of silk bands (decorations) and when prey is plentiful, they increase the number of bands. [14] Prior to moulting, A. keyserlingi will add additional web decorations to their existing web, possibly to provide mechanical support to the web and reduce exposure to predators in their vulnerable state during and following moulting. The oversized web decorations are removed following the moult. [13]

Prey capture

The stabilimentum in the web of Argiope keyserlingi appears to function as a prey attractant. [23] One feature of the stabilimentum is that it effectively reflects ultraviolet light, making it attractive to flying insects. Research suggests that the stabilimentum uses UV light and/or blue light to exploit a visual bias in insects, [23] [24] as most insect receptors are sensitive to both blue and UV light, [25] and many prey species of A. keyserlingi, including bees and flies, are attracted to UV light. [25]

However, the design of the stabilimentum also makes the web and the spider more visible to diurnal predators, such as birds and mantids. [6] The shape of the decoration can vary among a complete cross, a partial cross with one to three arms, or occasionally an absence of decoration. This variability can induce web-recognition problems for predators, potentially providing a form of camouflage or distraction. [11]

Once potential prey land on the web, the spider's attack strategy varies depending on the prey type. For example, A. keyserlingi wraps larger prey like bees and blowflies in silk before feeding, whereas it does not wrap smaller prey like Drosophila. [16]

Diet

Prey of the St Andrew's cross spider include flies, moths, butterflies, bees, and other insects. The orb-weaver wraps its prey immaculately with silk before digesting, and smaller prey may be prioritized. [11]

Threat response

When the orb-weaver is threatened, it responds by either ejecting from its web or vibrating the web strenuously so the web becomes a blur, confusing its predator. These two methods may not always succeed, though, as sometimes their corpses can be found in mud cells of wasps and their webs can be left empty and damaged. [11]

When exposed to chemical cues from predators, the attack behaviour of A. keyserlingi will change. They respond to and attack prey caught in the web faster, decreasing their foraging time overall, which is thought to decrease exposure to predators. [15]

Breeding

Mating takes place from summer to autumn and is a perilous occasion for miniature male St Andrew's cross spiders. Males settle on the upper segment of the web; some of them may be missing legs, caused by encountering inhospitable females. The male then materializes a mating thread within the web, which he uses to attract the hospitable female by oscillating the thread. The female then hangs her pear-shaped sac in a mesh of threads, frequently surrounded by leaves to camouflage the sac's greenish silk, because egg sacs are the target of wasps and flies. [11]

Mating behaviour

Mate choice

In Argiope keyserlingi, mate choice dynamics differ between males and females, influenced by factors such as prior mating experiences and food availability. Virgin males tend to prefer virgin females, while mated males display no discernible preference. [5] Female aggression towards courting males can vary based on the female's level of food satiation, with better-fed females showing more aggression. [5]

Sex pheromones

Female spiders embed contact pheromones into their web silk. [5] Males detect these pheromones through physical contact with the silk [5] to determine if the female has been mated already [5] and gain other information such as species identity and sexual receptivity. [5] [26] A. keyserlingi is also known to use airborne pheromones, possibly to signal the female's location to males, [27] but the role of these in male mate choice is not known. [5]

Courtship

A male Argiope keyserlingi engaging in vibratory courtship

Courtship in A. keyserlingi takes place on the female's web and mating takes place on a mating thread. [28] Male courtship behaviours are characterized by a series of vibratory signals from the male, including shudders, abdominal wags, and mating thread dances. [29]

Below is a breakdown of the courtship process leading into copulation: [29]

  1. The male approaches the female by crawling along the outer threads surrounding the web.
  2. Once in the web, the male slowly makes his way to the centre of the web (the hub), where the female is located.
  3. At the hub, the male 'tastes' the female by touching her legs and abdomen with his legs, then passing his legs through his mouth. This may last several minutes to over an hour, occurring in intervals with periods of rest.
  4. The male cuts a small section of the web above the female and constructs a mating thread, possibly reinforcing it with additional lines of silk.
  5. Hanging from the mating thread, the male produces vibrations by plucking and bouncing on the thread.
  6. The female moves onto the mating thread and exposes her genital opening (the epigyne).
  7. The male 'waggles' and begins copulation.

Shudders have been shown to have a strong influence on the female's time to enter a copulatory position. Higher rates of shuddering correspond to greater female reluctance (higher delay), [29] possibly because high shudder rates compromise the duration and quality of the shudder, but high shudder rates while maintaining an 'acceptable' duration is preferred. [29] Longer shudders may also reduce the female's aggression, reducing the risk of being attacked and cannibalised following copulation. [29]

Females may also display 'aggressive pumping' during courtship. Males adjust their courtship behavior based on these signals, with higher rates of female pumping leading to higher delays in the male building the mating thread for copulation. [29]

Courtship behaviour is also affected by the age of both the male and female. [30] Males display longer shudders when courting older females [30] and older males take longer to approach females and perform more shudders, suggesting that males invest more into courtship with age. [30]

Sexual cannibalism

A male and a female St Andrew's Cross Spider initiate copulation, followed by the female cannibalising the male

Argiope keyserlingi is a sexually cannibalistic species, with females potentially consuming the male after copulation. About 50% of males survive their first mating, but are always consumed following their second mating, resulting in a phenomenon where males never mate more than twice. [5] [31] Research also indicates that each pedipalp cannot be used more than once, [31] suggesting males are also physiologically limited to two copulations. Levi suggests that the embolus, found on the pedipalp and involved in sperm transfer, [32] may become damaged during copulation, preventing further mating. [33]

Cannibalism in A. keyserlingi does not seem to be influenced by the female's physical condition [34] or serve as a strategy to gain nutrients for egg production. [34] [4] It may function as a form of cryptic female choice, [34] allowing females to influence fertilization outcomes. Females can adjust the timing of cannibalism to limit the copulation duration, [34] and therefore amount of sperm transferred, typically favouring males with a smaller size. [34]

Despite no direct link to fecundity, females that consume the male will produce eggs with higher nutrient density. [4] Given the differences in nutrient composition between the spider and the egg and the species' sexual size dimorphism, post-copulatory feeding is not the source this energy [4] but instead, the energy is drawn from the female's somatic reserves. [4] Blamires suggests that protein uptake acts as a trigger to draw out the energy from these reserves. [4]

Related Research Articles

<i>Argiope</i> (spider) Genus of spiders

The genus Argiope includes rather large spiders that often have a strikingly coloured abdomen. These spiders are distributed throughout the world. Most countries in tropical or temperate climates host one or more species that are similar in appearance. The etymology of Argiope is from a Latin word argentum meaning silver. The carapace of Argiope species is typically covered in silvery hairs, and when crawling in the sun, they reflect it in a way that gives them a metallic, white appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orb-weaver spider</span> Family of spiders

Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name of the group. Araneids have eight similar eyes, hairy or spiny legs, and no stridulating organs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stabilimentum</span> Conspicuous, usually zig-zagged, silk structure in some orb-weaver spider webs

A stabilimentum, also known as a web decoration, is a conspicuous silk structure included in the webs of some species of orb-web spider. Its function is a subject of debate.

<i>Argiope picta</i> Species of spider

Argiope picta is a species of orb web spider found in tropical areas of Queensland, Australia and Papua New Guinea up to the Moluccas. This species is similar in size to the sympatric Argiope aetherea; females can be distinguished from those of A. aetherea via extensive differences in abdominal colouration and patterns. The males of these two species are almost indistinguishable.

<i>Argiope bruennichi</i> Species of orb-weaver spider

Argiope bruennichi, commonly known as the wasp spider, is a species of orb-weaver spider found across Central and Northern Europe, several regions of Asia, plus parts of the Middle east, North Africa and the Azores. Like many other members of the same genus Argiope, this species features distinctive yellow, white and black markings on its abdomen.

<i>Zygiella x-notata</i> Species of spider

Zygiella x-notata, sometimes known as the missing sector orb weaver or the silver-sided sector spider, is a spider species in the family Araneidae. They are solitary spiders, residing in daily spun orb webs. Z. x-notata is a member of the genus Zygiella, the orb-weaving spiders. The adult female is easily recognized by the characteristic leaf-like mark on her posterior opisthosoma, caudal to the yellow-brown cephalothorax.

<i>Argiope argentata</i> Species of spider

Argiope argentata, commonly known as the silver argiope or silver garden spider due to the silvery color of its cephalothorax, is a member of the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae. This species resides in arid and warm environments in North America, Central America, the Caribbean and widely across South America. In the United States, it is found at least in Southern California, Florida, Arizona, and Texas. A. argentata create stabilimenta and a unique zig-zag in its web design, and it utilizes its UV-reflecting silk to attract pollinating species to prey upon. Like other species of Argiope, its venom is not harmful to humans; however, it can be employed to immobilize its prey. A. argentata engages in sexual cannibalism either mid- or post-copulation. One aspect of particular interest regarding this species is its extinction patterns, which notably have minimal correlation with its population size but rather occur sporadically for the species.

<i>Larinioides sclopetarius</i> Species of spider

Larinioides sclopetarius, commonly called bridge-spider or gray cross-spider, is a relatively large orb-weaver spider with Holarctic distribution. These spiders originated in Europe, have been observed as south as the Mediterranean Coast and as north as Finland, and have been introduced to North America. They are often found on bridges, especially near light and over water. The species tends to live on steel objects and is seldom seen on vegetation. Females reach a body length of 10–14 mm, and males 8–9 mm. Their orb webs can have diameters of up to 70 cm.

<i>Gasteracantha fornicata</i> Species of spider

Gasteracantha fornicata is a species of spiny orb-weavers found in Queensland Australia. It is similar in shape to Austracantha minax which was originally described as Gasteracantha minax. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, the first Australian species of spider to be named and classified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual cannibalism</span> Practice of animals eating their own mating partners

Sexual cannibalism is when an animal, usually the female, cannibalizes its mate prior to, during, or after copulation. This trait is observed in many arachnid orders, several insect and crustacean clades, gastropods, and some snake species. Several hypotheses to explain this seemingly paradoxical behavior have been proposed, including the adaptive foraging hypothesis, aggressive spillover hypothesis and mistaken identity hypothesis. This behavior is believed to have evolved as a manifestation of sexual conflict, occurring when the reproductive interests of males and females differ. In many species that exhibit sexual cannibalism, the female consumes the male upon detection. Females of cannibalistic species are generally hostile and unwilling to mate; thus many males of these species have developed adaptive behaviors to counteract female aggression.

<i>Trichonephila plumipes</i> Species of spider

Trichonephila plumipes, the Pacific golden orb weaver, is a species of spider found in Australia, Indonesia and some Pacific Islands, which exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism through its sexual cannibalism behavior. It is sometimes called the tiger spider due to its markings which look similar to a tiger. This species was formerly called Nephila plumipes. As with other spiders from the genus Nephila, these spiders have a distinct golden web.

<i>Argiope submaronica</i> Species of spider

Argiope submaronica is a species of spider in the family Araneidae (orb-weavers), found from Mexico to Bolivia, and in Brazil. The name was at one time considered a synonym of Argiope argentata, but A. submaronica is now treated as a separate species. It has also been known under the synonym Argiope savignyi.

<i>Phonognatha graeffei</i> Species of spider

Phonognatha graeffei, referred to as the leaf curling spider, is a common Australian spider found in woodlands and urban areas in the northeastern, eastern and southern states. A member of the family Araneidae, the orb-weavers, it was previously placed in Tetragnathidae.

<i>Argiope pulchella</i> Species of arachnid

Argiope pulchella is a species of the orb-weaver spider family, Araneidae. Its range extends from India to China, Indochina, and Sumatra. It is a synanthropic species, often living in habitats associated with humans.

<i>Argiope aemula</i> Species of spider

Argiope aemula, commonly known as the oval St Andrew's cross spider, is a species of spider in the family Araneidae which is native to southeast Asia, found from India and Sri Lanka to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vanuatu. It is one of the giant, conspicuous "signature spider" species of the genus Argiope, observed in tropical and subtropical grasslands.

<i>Cyclosa argenteoalba</i> Species of spider

Cyclosa argenteoalba, in the trashline orbweavers genus, is a species of orb weaver in the spider family Araneidae. It is found in East Asia in the countries of China, Japan, and Korea. C. argenteoalba is diurnal, which means it is active during the day. Spiders with less silver coloring are better at catching prey, as the silver is bright and warns their prey of their presence. They catch their prey by waiting in the hub of their web until their prey is close enough to catch. Females are on average 2mm longer in size than males. During mating, female genital mutilation is common in order to increase the fitness of the male. C. argenteoalba often attach silk "decorations" on their webs, which are thought to deter predators. C. argenteoalba frequently relocate to different places to build a new webs until a location with a significant amount of prey is found. Parasitic larvae are often found attached to C. argenteoalba, and the larvae are able to manipulate the spider's behavior.

<i>Argyrodes elevatus</i> Species of spider

Argyrodes elevatus, commonly referred to as dew-drop spider, is part of the family Theridiidae that consists of more than 3,000 species. These spiders are most commonly found in subtropical and tropical regions in South and Central America, as well as southern regions of the United States. One of the key distinguishing characteristics of A. elevatus is its kleptoparasitic behavior through which it primarily procures food for survival. Typically 1 or 2 A. elevatus spiders preside in outer areas of webs built by other species of spiders, although it is possible for up to 45 spiders. There are two main mechanisms by which A. elevatus raid the hub of the host's web to steal insects preyed and wrapped by the host spider. A. elevatus follows an intricate course to the hub of the web to search for prey, using vibrational detection enhanced by laid out threads along the web to find and capture the insect. These spiders are highly efficient, with the theft lasting a maximum of 12 seconds and high success rates. This reliance on a host spider for food has led to adaptations in sleep schedules and alternate food sources to revolve around the host species activity. A. elevatus display a unique courtship routine in which male A. elevatus presents prey wrapped in silk as a nuptial gift to the female spider. The male spider approaches the female, carrying the nuptial gift on its chelicerae while communicating with a distinct courting vibration, followed by copulation. Approximately twenty-four hours after the A. elevatus courtship and copulation series of events, the female spider will lay one to two eggs on the outer regions of the host's web.

<i>Argiope radon</i> Species of spider

Argiope radon is a species of orb web spider native to Australia. It is found in tropical areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia and Queensland. It is commonly known as the Northern St Andrew's cross spider.

<i>Argiope versicolor</i> Species of spider

Argiope versicolor, the multi-coloured Saint Andrew's cross spider, is a species of orb-weaver spider found mostly in Southeast Asia, from China to Indonesia.

<i>Gea eff</i> Species of spider

Gea eff is a species of orb-weaver spider. It is found in Papua New Guinea. The arachnologist Herbert Walter Levi formally described the species in 1983. While it was still undescribed, Michael H. Robinson and colleagues reported on its courtship and mating behaviors. Gea eff has the shortest scientific name of any spider species.

References

  1. ↑ Levi H. W. (1983). "The Orb-Weaver Genera Argiope, Gea, and Neogea from the Western Pacific Region (Araneae: Araneidae, Argiopinae)" (PDF). MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. Harvard University. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  2. ↑ Whyte, Robert; Anderson, Greg (2017). A Field Guide to Spiders of Australia. Clayton South Vic. 3169: CSIRO publishing. p. 80. ISBN   978-0-643-10707-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  3. ↑ Zimmer, S. M.; Schneider, J. M.; Herberstein, M. E. (24 March 2014). "Can males detect the strength of sperm competition and presence of genital plugs during mate choice?". Behavioral Ecology. 25 (4): 716–722. doi:10.1093/beheco/aru045 . Retrieved 18 November 2024.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Blamires, Sean J. (June 2011). "Nutritional implications for sexual cannibalism in a sexually dimorphic orb web spider". Austral Ecology. 36 (4): 389–394. Bibcode:2011AusEc..36..389B. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2010.02161.x.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gaskett, Anne C.; Herberstein, Marie E.; Downes, Barbara J.; Elgar, Mark A. (2004). "Changes in Male Mate Choice in a Sexually Cannibalistic Orb-Web Spider (Araneae: Araneidae)". Behaviour. 141 (10): 1197–1210. doi:10.1163/1568539042729676. JSTOR   4536195.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Blamires, Sean J.; Thompson, Michael B.; Hochuli, Dieter F. (August 2007). "Habitat selection and web plasticity by the orb spider Argiope keyserlingi (Argiopidae): Do they compromise foraging success for predator avoidance?". Austral Ecology. 32 (5): 551–563. Bibcode:2007AusEc..32..551B. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01727.x.
  7. ↑ Blamires, Sean J.; Hochuli, Dieter F.; Thompson, Michael B. (2007). "Does decoration building influence antipredator responses in an orb-web spider (Argiope keyserlingi) in its natural habitat?". Australian Journal of Zoology. 55 (1): 1. doi:10.1071/ZO06098.
  8. ↑ "St Andrew's Cross Spider - Argiope Keyserlingi". BrisbaneInsects. January 1, 2009. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
  9. ↑ "ARGIOPE - Eleusinian Naiad Nymph of Greek Mythology". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  10. ↑ "Argiope keyserlingi Karsch, 1878 St Andrews Cross". www.arachne.org.au. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dr. Gray, Mike (September 29, 2020). "St Andrew's Cross Spider". Australian Museum. Retrieved November 9, 2020.
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  17. ↑ Bradley, Richard A. (1993). "The Influence of Prey Availability and Habitat on Activity Patterns and Abundance of Argiope keyserlingi (Araneae: Araneidae)". The Journal of Arachnology. 21 (2): 91–106. JSTOR   3705820.
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  20. ↑ Sherman, Peter M (July 1994). "The orb-web: an energetic and behavioural estimator of a spider's dynamic foraging and reproductive strategies". Animal Behaviour. 48 (1): 19–34. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1208. hdl: 2027.42/31447 .
  21. ↑ Herberstein, M. E.; Fleisch, A. F. (December 2003). "Effect of abiotic factors on the foraging strategy of the orb-web spider Argiope keyserlingi (Araneae: Araneidae)". Austral Ecology. 28 (6): 622–628. Bibcode:2003AusEc..28..622H. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.t01-1-01319.x.
  22. ↑ Bruce, M. J.; Herberstein, M. E.; Elgar, M. A. (September 2001). "Signalling conflict between prey and predator attraction". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 14 (5): 786–794. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00326.x.
  23. 1 2 Blamires, Sean J.; Hochuli, Dieter F.; Thompson, Michael B. (30 May 2008). "Why cross the web: decoration spectral properties and prey capture in an orb spider (Argiope keyserlingi) web". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 94 (2): 221–229. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.00999.x.
  24. ↑ Li, Daiqin; Lim, Matthew L.M.; Seah, Wee Khee; Tay, Su Ling (September 2004). "Prey attraction as a possible function of discoid stabilimenta of juvenile orb-spinning spiders". Animal Behaviour. 68 (3): 629–635. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.018.
  25. 1 2 Briscoe, Adriana D.; Chittka, Lars (January 2001). "The evolution of color vision in insects". Annual Review of Entomology. 46 (1): 471–510. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.471. PMID   11112177.
  26. ↑ Henneken, Jessica; Goodger, Jason Q.D.; Jones, Therèsa M.; Elgar, Mark A. (August 2017). "Variation in the web-based chemical cues of Argiope keyserlingi". Journal of Insect Physiology. 101: 15–21. Bibcode:2017JInsP.101...15H. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.06.005. PMID   28606855.
  27. ↑ Krafft, Bertrand (1982). "The Significance and Complexity of Communication in Spiders". Spider Communication. pp. 15–66. doi:10.1515/9781400857517.15. ISBN   978-1-4008-5751-7.
  28. ↑ Herberstein, M. E.; Schneider, J. M.; Elgar, M. A. (2002). "Costs of Courtship and Mating in a Sexually Cannibalistic Orb-Web Spider: Female Mating Strategies and Their Consequences for Males". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 51 (5): 440–446. Bibcode:2002BEcoS..51..440H. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0460-8. JSTOR   4602073.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wignall, Anne E.; Herberstein, Marie E. (16 January 2013). "The Influence of Vibratory Courtship on Female Mating Behaviour in Orb-Web Spiders (Argiope keyserlingi, Karsch 1878)". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e53057. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...853057W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053057 . PMC   3547032 . PMID   23341922.
  30. 1 2 3 O’Hanlon, James C.; Wignall, Anne E.; Herberstein, Marie E. (February 2018). "Short and fast vs long and slow: age changes courtship in male orb-web spiders (Argiope keyserlingi)". The Science of Nature. 105 (1–2): 3. Bibcode:2018SciNa.105....3O. doi:10.1007/s00114-017-1527-8. PMID   29209865.
  31. 1 2 Herberstein, M. E.; Gaskett, A. C.; Schneider, J. M.; Vella, N. G. F.; Elgar, M. A. (November 2005). "Limits to Male Copulation Frequency: Sexual Cannibalism and Sterility in St Andrew's Cross Spiders (Araneae, Araneidae)". Ethology. 111 (11): 1050–1061. Bibcode:2005Ethol.111.1050H. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2005.01114.x.
  32. ↑ Foellmer, Matthias W. (2008). "Broken genitals function as mating plugs and affect sex ratios in the orb-web spider Argiope aurantia" (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology Research. 10: 449–462.
  33. ↑ Levi, Herbert Walter (1975). "Mating behavior and presence of embolus cap in male Araneidae". Proceedings of the 6th International Arachnological Congress. Vol. 1974. Amsterdam. pp. 49–50. OCLC   1421948984.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 Elgar, M A; Schneider, J M; Herberstein, M E (7 December 2000). "Female control of paternity in the sexually cannibalistic spider Argiope keyserlingi". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 267 (1460): 2439–2443. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1303. PMC   1690835 . PMID   11133035.

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