Asarum canadense

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Leaves and flowers of Asarum Canadense. Image licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Image by Chris S. Packard. Asarum canadense.jpg
Leaves and flowers of Asarum Canadense. Image licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Image by Chris S. Packard.

Asarum canadense
Asarum canadense - Wild Ginger.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Aristolochiaceae
Genus: Asarum
Species:
A. canadense
Binomial name
Asarum canadense
L.
Synonyms

A. canadense var. acuminatum
A. canadense var. ambiguum
A. rubrocinctum

Contents

Asarum canadense, commonly known as Canada wild ginger, Canadian snakeroot, Indian Ginger, Coltsfoot, and Broad-Leaved Asarabacca, is a herbaceous, perennial plant. [2] It should not be confused for Asarum reflexum, a closely related species [3] , or Asarum acuminatum, a variety of A. canadense. [4]

It forms dense colonies in the understory of deciduous forests throughout its native range in eastern North America. It is protected as a threatened species in Maine due to habitat loss. [5] [6] [7] The species has been used by Native Americans for cooking and medicine, although recent research has suggested that compounds within the plant could cause negative health problems. [8] [9]

Description

Drawing of the structure of Asarum canadense including features such as flower, ovule placentation, leaves, and rhizomes. Asarum canadense-linedrawing2.png
Drawing of the structure of Asarum canadense including features such as flower, ovule placentation, leaves, and rhizomes.

Non-Reproductive Structures

Its leaves are velvety, kidney-shaped, and persistent, exhibiting a unique iridescence when in full sun. Underground shoots are shallow-growing, fleshy rhizomes that branch to form a clump. [10]

Flowers and Fruit

It has bisexual flowers that bloom from April through June. [11] [12] They are hairy and have three sepals. The flowers are tan to purple in color on the outside and lighter on the inside, with tapered tips and bases fused into a cup. [13] There are two sets of stamens within flowers, with one being longer than the other (heterostyly). [10] Pollinated flowers develop into a pod, which splits open when ripe to reveal seeds with elaiosomes, structures that are eaten by ants (myrmecochory). [14]

Distribution and Reproduction

Habitat

The plant forms dense colonies in the understory of deciduous forests throughout its native range in eastern North America, from the Great Plains east to the Atlantic Coast, and from southeastern Canada south to around the Fall Line in the southeastern United States. [15] Shaded habitats lead to longer surviving ramets and more genetically unique genets. [15] [16] Yet, individuals within environments with more shade are thought to have less energy to devote towards defenses against herbivores. [17] Extensive logging in Maine is thought to be the reason for the species' threatened status in the state. [7]

Flower of Asarum canadense. Image by wackybadger and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license. Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense) - 4525188863.jpg
Flower of Asarum canadense. Image by wackybadger and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.

Reproduction

The species' primary form of reproduction is through clones spread via rhizomes, although it can also produce genetically different seedlings via self-pollination. [18] [12] [19] Individuals produced by asexual reproduction are able to use energy more efficiently and develop larger leaves, but the trade-offs between sexual reproduction and asexual are though to be insignificant. [15] [20] Although some local populations are at risk of extirpation, they can be reestablished even through low initial plantings. [18] [21]

Seed Dispersion

They have a mutualistic relationship with ants, as their seeds are primarily dispersed by the insects. [22] Seeds are brought back to ant nests where elaisomes are removed and fed to larvae. [22] Once elaisomes are consumed, ants will relocate the seeds away from the nest to avoid the risk of fungal spread. [23] Removal of seeds from the parent plant helps to reduce seed predation from predators and may also place seeds in a more optimum germination environment. [23] Seeds are on average transported a distance of 32 - 39 centimeters from the parent plant, although large distances up to 36 meters have been reported. [12] Although seeds are primarily dispersed short distances, research suggests seeds were dispersed long distances through large-scale meterological events or via birds in the past. [24] The seeds exhibit morphophysiological dormancy, requiring a period of both warm and cold stratification (epicotyl dormancy). [25] Seeds are at a moderate to high risk of seed predation primarily by rodents and slugs. [12] [18]

Composition

Chemical diagram of aristolochic acid. Aristolochic acid.png
Chemical diagram of aristolochic acid.

The oil within rhizomes and roots is known as Canadian snakeroot oil. [26] [27] Although it contains many compounds, the two primary compounds are methyleugenol and linalool. [26] [28] The oil also contains aristolochic acid I in high quantities, which is thought to cause hephrotoxic and carcinogenic effects. [29]

Uses

Cooking

The long rhizomes of A. canadense were historically used by Native Americans as a seasoning. [8] The odor and flavor of Canadian snakeroot oil are spicy and has been used in many flavor preparations. [26] However, due to it containing aristolochic acid I, it is not recommended for consumption. [9]

Dense patch of Asarum canadense. Image by David Stang licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. Asarum canadense 18zz.jpg
Dense patch of Asarum canadense. Image by David Stang licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Medicinal Uses

Historically, Native Americans used the plant as a medicinal herb to treat a number of ailments including dysentery, digestive problems, swollen breasts, coughs and colds, typhus, scarlet fever, nerves, sore throats, cramps, heaves, earaches, headaches, convulsions, asthma, tuberculosis, urinary disorders, and venereal disease. [8] In addition, they also used it as a stimulant, appetite enhancer, charm and an admixture to strengthen other herbal preparations. [8]

Tribes that used the species medicinally and culinarily include the Chippewa, [30] the Iroquois, [31] , the Ojibwe, [32] the Meskwaki, [33] the Menomini, [34] the Potawatomi, [35] the Cherokee, the Abnaki, and the Micmac. [36]

Other Uses

More recently, it has been recommended as a native ground cover that can tolerate shade. [37] [13] Because it produces asexually, it can be propagated by cutting the rhizomes where a dormant shoot bud and roots exist. [38]

References

  1. ↑ "Asarum canadense". NatureServe Explorer. NatureServe. Archived from the original on April 15, 2013. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  2. ↑ Takeda, Hiroshi. “Constituents of the Rhizome of Asarum Canadense.” Ph.D., University of Illinois at Chicago, Health Sciences Center, 1966. https://www.proquest.com/docview/302220557/citation/6814543EA92A4559PQ/1.
  3. ↑ Bicknell, Eugene P. (1897). "A New Species of Wild Ginger Hitherto Confounded with Asarum Canadense L". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 24 (11): 528–536. doi:10.2307/2478074. ISSN   0040-9618. JSTOR   2478074.
  4. ↑ Lambert, Brett Shawn (2025). An integrative approach to delimiting the Canadian Wild Ginger, Asarum canadense (Thesis). The Ohio State University.
  5. ↑ Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, “Maine’s Wildlife Action Plan,” September 2015, https://www.maine.gov/ifw/docs/2015%20ME%20WAP%20Element%201_FINAL.pdf.
  6. ↑ Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, “Maine’s 2025 Draft Species of Greatest Conservation Need List,” 2025, https://www.maine.gov/ifw/docs/SGCN_Draft_List_20250304.pdf.
  7. 1 2 "Maine Natural Areas Program Rare Plant Fact Sheet for Asarum canadense". www.maine.gov. Retrieved 2025-12-12.
  8. 1 2 3 4 "Asarum canadense in Flora of North America @ efloras.org". www.efloras.org. Retrieved 2025-11-08.
  9. 1 2 Green, Rachael (2025-06-22). "The Toxic Downside You Should Know Before Growing Wild Ginger". House Digest. Retrieved 2025-11-08.
  10. 1 2 Bastin, Edson S. “Structure of Asarum Canadense, L.: Description of Figures.” American Journal of Pharmacy (1835-1907) (Philadelphia, United States), American Periodicals Series II, December 1894, 574.
  11. ↑ "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2025-11-05.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Muir, Angela M. (1997). Seed predation and dispersal in a deciduous forest understorey herb, wild ginger (Asarum canadense) (Thesis). Carleton University. hdl:20.500.14718/35521.
  13. 1 2 Woods, Jean (2023-02-18). "Wild Gingers, Hexastylis and Asarum, in North Carolina". North Carolina Native Plant Society. Retrieved 2025-11-07.
  14. ↑ Holm, © Heather; Holm, 2015 Heather. "Wild Ginger Seed Dispersal" . Retrieved 2025-11-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. 1 2 3 Cain, Michael L.; Damman, Hans (1997). "Clonal Growth and Ramet Performance in the Woodland Herb, Asarum Canadense". Journal of Ecology. 85 (6): 883–897. Bibcode:1997JEcol..85..883C. doi:10.2307/2960609. ISSN   0022-0477. JSTOR   2960609.
  16. ↑ Damman, Hans; Cain, Michael L. (January 2002). "Population growth and viability analyses of the clonal woodland herb, Asarum canadense". Journal of Ecology. 86 (1): 13–26. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00242.x. ISSN   0022-0477.
  17. ↑ Liang, Yiqing, and Ivana Stehlik. “Relationship between Shade and Herbivory in Asarum Canadense (Wild Ginger).” Journal of Undergraduate Life Sciences 3, no. 1 (2009): 30–32.
  18. 1 2 3 Meier, Albert J.; Meier, Armin R.; Stone, Joleen; Stone, Martin; McPhail, Barry (2020-05-22). "The Near Extirpation and Subsequent Restoration of Asarum canadense L. (Wild Ginger) (Aristolochiaceae) in Louisiana". Southeastern Naturalist. 19 (2): 395. doi:10.1656/058.019.0220. ISSN   1528-7092.
  19. ↑ Wildman, Harvey E. (1950-05-19). "Pollination of Asarum canadense L." Science. 111 (2890): 551. Bibcode:1950Sci...111..551W. doi:10.1126/science.111.2890.551. PMID   15418195.
  20. ↑ Muir, Angela M. (1995-10-01). "The cost of reproduction to the clonal herb Asarum canadense (wild ginger)". Canadian Journal of Botany. 73 (10): 1683–1686. Bibcode:1995CaJB...73.1683M. doi:10.1139/b95-182. ISSN   0008-4026.
  21. ↑ Golay, M. G.; Manatt, R.; Mabry, C.; Thompson, J.; Kolka, R. (2013-12-01). "Restoration of Herbaceous Woodland Plants: Persistence, Growth, and Reproductive Success of Local and Non-local Propagules". Ecological Restoration. 31 (4): 378–387. Bibcode:2013EcoRe..31..378G. doi:10.3368/er.31.4.378. ISSN   1522-4740.
  22. 1 2 Heithaus, E. Raymond (1986), Estrada, Alejandro; Fleming, Theodore H. (eds.), "Seed dispersal mutualism and the population density of Asarum canadense, an ant-dispersed plant", Frugivores and seed dispersal, Tasks for vegetation science, vol. 15, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 199–210, doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4812-9_19, ISBN   978-94-009-4812-9 , retrieved 2025-11-07
  23. 1 2 Canner, Judith Elena. “The Population Ecology of Ant-Dispersed Plants in Space and Time.” Ph.D., North Carolina State University, 2010.
  24. ↑ Cain, Michael L.; Damman, Hans; Muir, Angela (August 1998). "Seed Dispersal and the Holocene Migration of Woodland Herbs". Ecological Monographs. 68 (3): 325–347. doi:10.1890/0012-9615(1998)068[0325:SDATHM]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0012-9615.
  25. ↑ Baskin, Jerry M.; Baskin, Carol C. (July 1986). "Seed Germination Ecophysiology of the Woodland Herb Asarum canadense". American Midland Naturalist. 116 (1): 132. doi:10.2307/2425945. JSTOR   2425945.
  26. 1 2 3 Motto, Michael G.; Secord, Norman J. (September 1985). "Composition of the essential oil from Asarum canadense". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 33 (5): 789–791. Bibcode:1985JAFC...33..789M. doi:10.1021/jf00065a004. ISSN   0021-8561.
  27. ↑ Bélanger, André; Collin, Guy; Garneau, François-Xavier; Gagnon, Hélène; Pichette, André (December 2011). "Aromas From Quebec. II. Composition of the Essential Oil of the Rhizomes and Roots of Asarum canadense L." Journal of Essential Oil Research. 22 (2): 164–169. doi:10.1080/10412905.2010.9700293. ISSN   1041-2905.
  28. ↑ Takeda, Hiroshi. “Constituents of the Rhizome of Asarum Canadense.” Ph.D., University of Illinois at Chicago, Health Sciences Center, 1966. https://www.proquest.com/docview/302220557/citation/6814543EA92A4559PQ/1.
  29. ↑ Michl, Johanna; Bello, Olusheyi; Kite, Geoffrey C.; Simmonds, Monique S. J.; Heinrich, Michael (2017-05-22). "Medicinally Used Asarum Species: High-Resolution LC-MS Analysis of Aristolochic Acid Analogs and In vitro Toxicity Screening in HK-2 Cells". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 215. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00215 . ISSN   1663-9812. PMC   5439001 . PMID   28588481.
  30. ↑ Densmore, Frances (1974). How Indians use wild plants for food, medicine, and crafts. Uses of plants by the Chippewa Indianshttp://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n82061978http://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/n82061978http://viaf.org/viaf/186303248. New York: Dover. ISBN   978-0-486-23019-1.{{cite book}}: External link in |series= (help)
  31. ↑ Herrick, James W. (1995). Iroquois Medicinal Botany. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN   9780815602958.
  32. ↑ Smith, H.H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:3(327-525).
  33. ↑ Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
  34. ↑ Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:1(8-175).
  35. ↑ Smith, H.H. 1933. Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1-230.
  36. ↑ M. Kat Anderson, “Canadian Wildginger,” December 5, 2000, https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_asca.pdf.
  37. ↑ Johnson, Ken (2025-04-18). "Wild ginger: A native groundcover for shady gardens | Good Growing | Illinois Extension | UIUC". extension.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2025-11-08.
  38. ↑ Schultz, Kelly (2014). "Using shade to propagate Canadian wild ginger (Asarum canadense L.) and other woodland forbs". Native Plants Journal. 15 (3): 231–235. doi:10.3368/npj.15.3.231. ISSN   1522-8339. JSTOR   26524771.
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