CEPAS

CEPAS
Location	Singapore
Launched	April 2002;22 years ago (FeliCa EZ-Link) ; February 2009;15 years ago (CEPAS card-based EZ-Link) ; 9 October 2009;14 years ago (CEPAS card-based NETS FlashPay) ; 28 January 2021;3 years ago (CEPAS account-based EZ-Link) ; 21 December 2021;2 years ago (CEPAS account-based NETS Prepaid Card)
Technology	Contactless smart card, NFC ;
Operator	Concession Cards Land Transport Authority; PaymentLink Pte Ltd; EZ-Link Cards EZ-Link Pte Ltd; PaymentLink Pte Ltd; FlashPay Cards NETS Pte Ltd;
Manager	TransitLink Pte Ltd
Currency	SGD ($500 maximum load)
Credit expiry	5 years (EZ-Link) ; 7 years (FlashPay)
Auto recharge	EZ-Reload ; GIRO Auto topup
Unlimited use	Adult Monthly Travel Card
Validity	Singapore Mass Rapid Transit ; Singapore Light Rapid Transit ; Singapore public buses ; Sentosa Express ; Electronic parking; Retail Payments;
Retailed	TransitLink ticket offices; MRT passenger service centres; 7-Eleven stores; SingPost;
Variants	Concession cards (supports EZ-Link retail payments); Adult cards (supports either EZ-Link or FlashPay retail payments);
Website	TransitLink ; LTA Concession Cards

Last updated April 22, 2024

CEPAS, the Specification for Contactless e-Purse Application, is a Singaporean specification for an electronic money smart card. The specification was prepared by the Cards and Personnel Identification Technical Committee (CPITC), under the purview of the IT Standard Committee of Singapore (ITSCS). It has been gazetted as Singapore Standard SS 518 by Enterprise Singapore.^[1] CEPAS has been deployed island-wide, replacing the previous original EZ-Link card effective 1 October 2009.^[2]

Function

The CEPAS provides the command sets and data bytes that can be used for contactless e-purse applications, and focuses on the debit and credit areas. The most recent version of the standard is CEPAS 3.0 which adds support for Account Based Ticketing with a token held on the CEPAS card. The standard allows for the interoperability of multi-purpose stored value (MPSV) card payment schemes from different card issuers and system operators.

Background

CEPAS is spearheaded by the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore (IDA), and is one of the key next generation e-Payment initiatives under Singapore's iN2015 infocomm masterplan led by IDA.^[3] The vision of CEPAS is for Singaporeans to have a single MPSV card for use all around Singapore for micro-payments. This includes transit (bus, MRT, LRT), taxi, motoring (ERP, parking), retail, and other services.

CEPAS is a result of close collaboration by IDA with different industry players and the Land Transport Authority (LTA). The other key collaborators are the Cards & Personal Identification Technical Committee (CPITC) under the Singapore IT Standards Committee (ITSC), Network for Electronic Transfers (NETS) and EZ-Link Pte Ltd (EZ-Link). CEPAS was published by SPRING Singapore as SS 518 and was officially launched during the CEPAS Launch & Next Generation e-Payment seminar on 27 June 2006, held at Suntec Singapore International Convention and Exhibition Centre.^[3]

Current and future payment landscape

The current micro-payment landscape in Singapore is fragmented with different standards, with two main players, NETS and EZ-Link. EZ-Link controls the transit space and NETS controls the motoring (ERP, parking) space. NETS also dominates the retail space, with EZ-Link having limited presence. Cards and readers from both providers cannot currently interoperate and consumers hold different cards for payment of different services and goods.

CEPAS aims to open and level the micro-payment playing field. For example, NETS card holders will be able to use their cards to pay for transit and EZ-Link card holders for retail and motoring payments. For merchants, the overall operation cost is intended to be lower and the market space larger.^{[ citation needed ]}

CEPAS-compliant EZ-Link cards have been available for sale from 29 December 2008.^[4]

Technical details of CEPAS 2.0

The commands in this standard follow the convention in ISO/IEC 7816-4: 2005. The main commands are "Read Purse", "Debit Purse" and "Credit Purse". The design allows for partial refund and is limited to the most recent amount debited. The "AutoLoad" and "Cumulative Debit" features are also available. In this standard, key management for controlling e-purse operations is flexible and the final details are decided by the card issuer. Atomicity is a key focus in this standard to ensure reliability of transactions across multiple interfaces.

Transaction processing methods

Card-based Offline Debit

The CEPAS-compliant EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay cards released in 2009 operate as offline cards, intended for farecards in transit systems and micropayments in retail. As transactions are processed offline without having to maintain an active network connection to the bank for processing, lower transaction fees are incurred compared to debit and credit cards.

Payment Mode	Description	Year Introduced	Chip and PIN	Contactless payment	Top Up Using Self-help Machines	Public Transport Payments	Retail Payments	Carpark Payments
• EZ-Link cards • Concession cards • EZ-Link Motoring cards • EZ-Charms • EZ-Link Wearables • EZ-Link NFC SIM cards (Card-based Offline Debit)	Card-based stored-value wallet, based on CEPAS standard. ✓ It can be used for retail and public transport payments, without remote management functionality. ✓ Commuters can see their fare cost and card balance at the gantry. ✓ The card-based offline debit EZ-Link cards and EZ-Link Motoring cards are compatible with dual mode in-vehicle units for ERP and carpark payments.	2002: FeliCa card 2009: CEPAS card 2021: EZ-Link Motoring Card (CEPAS) The card-based offline debit EZ-Link cards are no longer sold at TransitLink Ticket Offices since 15 March 2022, to encourage adoption of the SimplyGo account-based system.^[5]^[6] EZ-Link Motoring cards (with a non-account-based card profile & similar functionality) are still sold at 7-Eleven/Cheers convenience stores, selected Caltex petrol stations, Vicom centres, STA Inspection centres.^[7]	No	Yes	Top-Up Kiosks Assisted Service Kiosks SimplyGo Kiosk (at MRT stations & bus interchanges)	Yes	Limited retail locations	Yes
• NETS FlashPay • NETS Contactless CashCard (2nd generation) •NETS Motoring Card) (Card-based Offline Debit)	Card-based stored-value wallet, based on CEPAS standard for retail, public transport, and motoring payments. ✓ It can be used for retail and public transport payments, without remote management functionality. ✓ Commuters can see their fare cost and card balance at the gantry. ✓ It is compatible with dual mode in-vehicle units for ERP and carpark payments.	2009: NETS FlashPay 2018: NETS Contactless CashCard 2021: NETS Motoring Card NETS FlashPay cards are no longer sold at TransitLink Ticket Offices since 15 March 2022, to encourage adoption of the SimplyGo account-based system.^[8]^[6] NETS Motoring cards (with FlashPay payment functionality) are still sold at petrol stations and convenience stores.	No	Yes	Top-Up Kiosks/General Ticketing Machines Assisted Service Kiosks SimplyGo Kiosk (at MRT stations & bus interchanges) NETS Top Up Machines	Yes	Yes	Yes

Account-based Online Debit

In 2017, the Land Transport Authority began an account-based ticketing trial to expand the range of e-payment options and eliminate the need for top-ups in transit. In 2019, the system was officially launched as SimplyGo. It allowed credit cards (Visa, Mastercard) and mobile wallets (Apple Pay, Fitbit Pay, Garmin Pay, Google Pay, Samsung Pay) to be used in the transit system, in addition to the existing CEPAS EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay cards.^[9]^[10]

In September 2020, LTA began a trial to expand the account-based ticketing system to CEPAS cards, which were conventionally based on a card-based ticketing system. The reason given for pushing the account-based ticketing system was that it removed the need for physical trips to top-up machines. As the card information is stored on a central server under account-based ticketing, access to travel history and card top-ups can be done remotely through mobile apps, without needing the card to be physically present.^[11]^[12]

The account-based EZ-Link Card was launched in January 2021,^[13] and the account-based NETS Prepaid Card was launched in November 2022.^[14] These account-based cards replaced the former EZ-Link and NETS FlashPay cards that supported card-based ticketing. Transactions using account-based cards are processed backend, hence commuters are unable to see their fare deduction and card value balance at MRT fare gates and bus readers.

On 10 January 2024, LTA announced that EZ-Link adult cards which have not yet been upgraded to SimplyGo and NETS FlashPay cards will no longer be accepted for public transport fare payment from 1 June 2024 due to phasing out of the legacy card-based ticketing system. Commuters with EZ-Link Adult Cards may upgrade to the SimplyGo system at any ticketing machine and retain their current cards, while commuters with NETS FlashPay Cards may exchange their current card for a free NETS Prepaid Card at SimplyGo Ticket Offices or Ticketing Service Centres.^[15]^[16]

Payment Mode	Description	Year Introduced	Chip and PIN	Contactless payment	Top Up Using Self-help Machines	Public Transport Payments	Retail Payments	Carpark Payments
• SimplyGo EZ-Link cards • SimplyGo Concession cards (Account-based Online Debit)	Online account-based ticketing wallet, based on CEPAS standard. As the card information is stored on a central server, the card balance can be topped up without presence of physical card. ✓ It is compatible with the SimplyGo system for remote management of public transport cards. ✗ Fare cost and card balance will not be displayed at the gantry. Commuters have to create an account and sign in to the SimplyGo website or app, to view their travel history and its related fares. ✗ These account-based online debit cards are not compatible with ERP and carpark payments.	2021^[12]	No	Yes	Top-Up Kiosks/General Ticketing Machines Assisted Service Kiosks SimplyGo Kiosk (at MRT stations & bus interchanges)	Fare cost and card balance will not be displayed at the gantry	Limited acceptance	No
• NETS Prepaid Card (Account-based Online Debit)	Online account-based ticketing wallet, for retail and public transport payments. It functions similarly to the NETS EFTPOS Debit card. As the card information is stored on a central server, the card balance can be topped up without presence of physical card. ✓ It is compatible with the SimplyGo system for remote management of public transport cards. ✗ Fare cost and card balance will not be displayed at the gantry. Commuters have to create an account and sign in to the SimplyGo website or app, to view their travel history and its related fares. ✗ It is not compatible with ERP and carpark payments.	2022^[17]	Yes (for transactions ≥ $100)	Yes	Top up available on mobile app only	Fare cost and card balance will not be displayed at the gantry	Yes	No

Criticisms

There has been some criticisms by the public that the auto-top up service by GIRO for the new CEPAS card will require an administration fee for activation as well as for each top-up. In contrast, auto-top up for the original EZ-Link card was free. Also, the public has complained that there is now more hassle in applying for this service in contrast to the relatively easier process for the original version.^[18]

LTA's announcement on 10 January 2024 about the discontinuation of the card-based ticketing EZ-Link & NETS FlashPay Cards and mandatory transition to the account-based ticketing SimplyGo EZ-Link & NETS Prepaid Cards drew negative reception from the public. The concerns that were raised include the inability to view fares & card balances at the gantry. The public felt that the SimplyGo user experience for stored-value cards is unnecessarily complicated and over-reliant on mobile apps, which creates inconveniences for the elderly, children, and less tech-savvy demographics of the population.^[19]^[20]^[21] The decision was reversed by the authorities on 22 January 2024, and existing EZ-Link & NETS FlashPay cards can continue to be used after 1 June 2024.^[22]

Gallery

Payment Cards/Logos
Back of a CEPAS NETS FlashPay card

Related Research Articles

A debit card, also known as a check card or bank card, is a payment card that can be used in place of cash to make purchases. The card usually consists of the bank's name, a card number, the cardholder's name, and an expiration date, on either the front or the back. Many of the new cards now have a chip on them, which allows people to use their card by touch (contactless), or by inserting the card and keying in a PIN as with swiping the magnetic stripe. These are similar to a credit card, but unlike a credit card, the money for the purchase must be in the cardholder's bank account at the time of the purchase and is immediately transferred directly from that account to the merchant's account to pay for the purchase.

Electronic funds transfer at point of sale is an electronic payment system involving electronic funds transfers based on the use of payment cards, such as debit cards or credit cards, at payment terminals located at points of sale. EFTPOS technology was developed during the 1980s.

A smart card (SC), chip card, or integrated circuit card, is a card used to control access to a resource. It is typically a plastic credit card-sized card with an embedded integrated circuit (IC) chip. Many smart cards include a pattern of metal contacts to electrically connect to the internal chip. Others are contactless, and some are both. Smart cards can provide personal identification, authentication, data storage, and application processing. Applications include identification, financial, public transit, computer security, schools, and healthcare. Smart cards may provide strong security authentication for single sign-on (SSO) within organizations. Numerous nations have deployed smart cards throughout their populations.

A stored-value card (SVC) is a payment card with a monetary value stored on the card itself, not in an external account maintained by a financial institution. This means no network access is required by the payment collection terminals as funds can be withdrawn and deposited straight from the card. Like cash, payment cards can be used anonymously as the person holding the card can use the funds. They are an electronic development of token coins and are typically used in low-value payment systems or where network access is difficult or expensive to implement, such as parking machines, public transport systems, and closed payment systems in locations such as ships.

The Mass Rapid Transit system, locally known by the initialism MRT, is a rapid transit system in Singapore and the island country's principal mode of railway transportation. The system commenced operations in November 1987 after two decades of planning with an initial 6 km (3.7 mi) stretch consisting of five stations. The network has since grown to span the length and breadth of the country's main island – with the exception of the forested core and the rural northwestern region – in accordance with Singapore's aim of developing a comprehensive rail network as the backbone of the country's public transportation system, averaging a daily ridership of 3.4 million in 2019.

The Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system is an electronic toll collection scheme adopted in Singapore to manage traffic by way of road pricing, and as a usage-based taxation mechanism to complement the purchase-based Certificate of Entitlement system. There are a total of 93 ERP gantries located throughout the country, along expressways and roads leading towards the Central Area. As of February 2023, there were a total of 19 ERP gantries in operation, as compared to 77 in 2020 before the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore.

The Oyster card is a payment method for public transport in London in England, United Kingdom. A standard Oyster card is a blue credit-card-sized stored-value contactless smart card. It is promoted by Transport for London (TfL) and can be used on travel modes across London including London Buses, London Underground, the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), London Overground, Tramlink, some river boat services, and most National Rail services within the London fare zones. Since its introduction in June 2003, more than 86 million cards have been used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EZ-Link</span> Contactless smart card used in Singapore

The EZ-Link card is a rechargeable contactless smart card and electronic money system that is primarily used as a payment method for public transport such as bus and rail lines in Singapore. A standard EZ-Link card is a credit-card-sized stored-value contact-less smart-card that comes in a variety of colours, as well as limited edition designs. It is sold by TransitLink Pte Ltd, a subsidiary of the Land Transport Authority (LTA), and can be used on travel modes across Singapore, including the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), the Light Rail Transit (LRT), public buses which are operated by SBS Transit, SMRT Buses, Tower Transit Singapore and Go-Ahead Singapore, as well as the Sentosa Express.

Touch 'n Go is a contactless smart card system used for electronic payments in Malaysia. The system was introduced in 1997 and is widely used for toll payments on highways, public transportation, parking, and other services. The card is equipped with a radio-frequency identification (RFID) chip that allows users to make payments by simply tapping the card on a reader device. Touch 'n Go cards can be reloaded with funds either online or at designated reload kiosks. The system has become a popular and convenient way for Malaysians to make cashless transactions.

FeliCa is a contactless RFID smart card system from Sony in Japan, primarily used in electronic money cards. The name stands for Felicity Card. First utilized in the Octopus card system in Hong Kong, the technology is used in a variety of cards also in countries such as Singapore, Japan, Indonesia, Macau, the Philippines and the United States.

The Presto card is a contactless smart card automated fare collection system used on participating public transit systems in the province of Ontario, Canada, specifically in Greater Toronto, Hamilton, and Ottawa. Presto card readers were implemented on a trial basis from 25 June 2007 to 30 September 2008. Full implementation began in November 2009 and it was rolled out across rapid transit stations, railway stations, bus stops and terminals, and transit vehicles on eleven different transit systems.

The history of the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system of Singapore commenced with its planning in the 1960s, which finally led to its opening in 1987 with the launch of a 6 km section of the North South Line (NSL) from Yio Chu Kang to Toa Payoh. Since its inception, the rapid transit system has played a crucial role in the public transportation network and the wider development of the country as a whole, providing a fast and efficient means of transportation for millions of Singaporeans daily.

Rail operators are government-assisted profit-based corporations, fares and ticketing on Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system are aimed to break-even or exceed operating expenses. Rail operators collect fares based on account-based (ABT) and card-based ticketing options, the prices of which are calculated based on the distances travelled between the origin and destination. These prices increase in stages for standard non-concessionary travel, according to the distances travelled. In account-based ticketing, the fare is automatically calculated in the back-end and charged to the passenger post journey. On the other hand, card-based ticketing is proprietary to the transport network and the fare is computed by the system based on the store values recorded in the cards. The public transit system is harmonising towards full ABT.

The Chicago Card and the Chicago Card Plus were contactless smart cards used by riders of the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) and Pace to electronically pay for bus and train fares in the city of Chicago, Illinois, USA and the surrounding suburbs. On June 1, 2014, CTA and Pace stopped accepting these cards as part of a transition to Ventra.

A contactless smart card is a contactless credential whose dimensions are credit card size. Its embedded integrated circuits can store data and communicate with a terminal via NFC. Commonplace uses include transit tickets, bank cards and passports.

Network for Electronic Transfers, colloquially known as NETS, is a Singaporean electronic payment service provider. Founded in 1986 by a consortium of local banks, it aims to establish the debit network and drive the adoption of electronic payments in Singapore. It is owned by DBS Bank, OCBC Bank and United Overseas Bank (UOB).

Contactless payment systems are credit cards and debit cards, key fobs, smart cards, or other devices, including smartphones and other mobile devices, that use radio-frequency identification (RFID) or near-field communication (NFC) for making secure payments. The embedded integrated circuit chip and antenna enable consumers to wave their card, fob, or handheld device over a reader at the Point-of-sale terminal. Contactless payments are made in close physical proximity, unlike other types of mobile payments which use broad-area cellular or Wi-Fi networks and do not involve close physical proximity.

RuPay is an Indian multinational financial services and payment service system, conceived and launched by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) in 2014. It was created to fulfil the Reserve Bank of India's (RBI) vision of establishing a domestic, open and multilateral system of payments. RuPay facilitates electronic payment at all Indian banks and financial institutions. NPCI maintains ties with Discover Financial and JCB to enable the RuPay Card scheme to gain international acceptance.

The Smart Nation is an initiative by the Government of Singapore to harness infocomm technologies, networks and big data to create tech-enabled solutions.

Pay as you go, or PAYG, in the context of public transport, refers to a method of fare collection where the fare is only charged at or after usage, depending on the actual usage, instead of buying a ticket in advance. In such a case, the payment method itself, when validated, is the proof-of-payment, with the actual journey detail not yet known.

References

↑ Singapore Standard SS 518 (ICS 35.240.15) Specification for Contactless e-purse application. Enterprise Singapore. 2006. ISBN 981-4154-26-1.
↑ Land Transport Authority (2 December 2009). "SeP Ready For Implementation". Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
1 2 Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore (23 January 2008). "Specification for Contactless e-Purse Application (CEPAS)" . Retrieved 3 February 2017.
↑ EZ-Link Pte Ltd (26 December 2008). "Commencement of sale of the NEW CEPAS-Compliant EZ-Link card" . Retrieved 4 April 2009.^{[ dead link ]}
↑ "Expiring EZ-Link cards before 31st Dec 2023 - EZ-Link".
1 2 "Singapore's LTA Sees Strong Take-Up of Open-Loop Payments but has No Plans to End Closed Loop - Mobility Payments".
↑ "EZ-Link Motoring card - EZ-Link".
↑ "NETS - Announcements".
↑ "LTA launches digital payment scheme for public transport". The Straits Times. 4 April 2019. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
↑ "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) - TransitLink SimplyGo".
↑ "LTA Launches SimplyGo Pilot On EZ-Link Cards - LTA".
1 2 "Account-based EZ-Link cards available for use in Public Transport from 28 Jan - LTA".
↑ "EZ-Link launches account-based cards that allow top-ups through mobile app". CNA. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
↑ https://www.nets.com.sg/newsroom/nets-launches-nets-prepaid-card-its-first-smart-stored-value-card-for-retail-and-transit
↑ "Non-SimplyGo EZ-Link, NETS FlashPay cards not valid for public transport from June".
↑ "EZ-Link Adult Cardholders and NETS FlashPay Cardholders to Transit to SimplyGo for Public Transport Fare Payments by 1 June".
↑ "NETS launches 'smart' stored-value card for retail and transit".
↑ The Straits Times (15 September 2009). "Have a card to rival EZ-link". Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
↑ "CNA Explains: Why some Singapore commuters are upset about moving from EZ-Link to SimplyGo". CNA.
↑ "Commuters run into problems upgrading EZ-Link cards amid complaints over switch to SimplyGo". CNA.
↑ "Displaying fares, deductions at gantries under SimplyGo possible but 'will lead to longer queues': LTA". TODAY.
↑ Tjoe, Lee Nian; Yufeng, Kok (22 January 2024). "LTA shelves plan to replace older public transport payment cards with SimplyGo by June 1". The Straits Times. Retrieved 22 January 2024.

External links

Specification for Contactless ePurse Application (CEPAS)

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.

[1] Singapore Standard SS 518 (ICS 35.240.15) Specification for Contactless e-purse application. Enterprise Singapore. 2006. ISBN 981-4154-26-1.

[lta_sep-2] Land Transport Authority (2 December 2009). "SeP Ready For Implementation". Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2009.

[ida-3] 1 2 Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore (23 January 2008). "Specification for Contactless e-Purse Application (CEPAS)" . Retrieved 3 February 2017.

[4] EZ-Link Pte Ltd (26 December 2008). "Commencement of sale of the NEW CEPAS-Compliant EZ-Link card" . Retrieved 4 April 2009.^{[ dead link ]}

[5] "Expiring EZ-Link cards before 31st Dec 2023 - EZ-Link".

[mobility-payments.com-6] 1 2 "Singapore's LTA Sees Strong Take-Up of Open-Loop Payments but has No Plans to End Closed Loop - Mobility Payments".

[7] "EZ-Link Motoring card - EZ-Link".

[8] "NETS - Announcements".

[9] "LTA launches digital payment scheme for public transport". The Straits Times. 4 April 2019. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

[10] "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) - TransitLink SimplyGo".

[11] "LTA Launches SimplyGo Pilot On EZ-Link Cards - LTA".

[lta.gov.sg-12] 1 2 "Account-based EZ-Link cards available for use in Public Transport from 28 Jan - LTA".

[13] "EZ-Link launches account-based cards that allow top-ups through mobile app". CNA. Retrieved 13 December 2022.

[14] ttps://www.nets.com.sg/newsroom/nets-launches-nets-prepaid-card-its-first-smart-stored-value-card-for-retail-and-transit

[15] "Non-SimplyGo EZ-Link, NETS FlashPay cards not valid for public transport from June".

[16] "EZ-Link Adult Cardholders and NETS FlashPay Cardholders to Transit to SimplyGo for Public Transport Fare Payments by 1 June".

[17] "NETS launches 'smart' stored-value card for retail and transit".

[stforum-18] The Straits Times (15 September 2009). "Have a card to rival EZ-link". Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 5 October 2009.

[19] "CNA Explains: Why some Singapore commuters are upset about moving from EZ-Link to SimplyGo". CNA.

[20] "Commuters run into problems upgrading EZ-Link cards amid complaints over switch to SimplyGo". CNA.

[21] "Displaying fares, deductions at gantries under SimplyGo possible but 'will lead to longer queues': LTA". TODAY.

[22] Tjoe, Lee Nian; Yufeng, Kok (22 January 2024). "LTA shelves plan to replace older public transport payment cards with SimplyGo by June 1". The Straits Times. Retrieved 22 January 2024.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]