| California carpenter bee | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Female | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Apidae |
| Genus: | Xylocopa |
| Species: | X. californica |
| Binomial name | |
| Xylocopa californica Cresson, 1864 | |
The California carpenter bee or Western carpenter bee, Xylocopa californica, is a species of carpenter bee in the order Hymenoptera, and it is native to western North America. [1]
There are approximately 400 species worldwide of the genus Xylocopa. [2] X. californica is typically found in California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Northwestern Mexico. [3] It is especially abundant, along with X. sonorina , in the Central Valley and in Southern California, including the Mojave Desert. They are agriculturally beneficial insects and pollinators of diverse California chaparral and woodlands and desert native plant species. [4] [5] This carpenter bee is active during hot seasons. Therefore, they are considered an endothermic insect as it absorbs heat in the desert conditions. As the bee absorbs too much heat in its body, it has to limit the time it flies and fly in the time of day in which it is cooler. [6]
Their head is larger and thicker than their thorax; however, the size of the head differs between females and males. Female carpenter bees have bigger heads than males with more narrow heads. [7] The California carpenter bee is all black, with bluish/greenish reflections. The males typically have at least a few light hairs on the pronotum (dorsal prothorax) and the abdominal segments. [8] California carpenter bees have hair on their heads; most of their hair lays in the lower part of their head and cheeks compared to the sparse hairs on the top of the head. They have dark wings without stigma and are 13–30 mm long overall. [2]
Xylocopa californica has been observed to rob nectar from ocotillo, Fouquieria splendens , and are determined to be their primary pollinator in the Big Bend National Park, Texas, USA. [9] They rob the nectar from flowers by chewing a hole on the side of the flower and taking the nectar without participating in pollination. [2] They like both nectar and pollen, except the pollen sources seem more specific; they prefer the pollen from the creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) and mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa ). [10] They tend to visit larger open flowers due to their large size. [2] The foraging behavior consists of three movements- fast forward flight, hovering and perching or walking on the flower blossoms [11]
Floral sonication is essential for the foraging of many Hymenoptera. [12] X. californica performs floral sonication to obtain pollen. [13] They do this by gripping the poricidal anthers with their mandibles and contracting their flight muscles, rapidly vibrating their body and the flower's anthers, releasing the pollen onto the abdomen and legs of the bees. [12] This process allows for pollination to happen.
The vibration frequency is different throughout their body; their head's natural vibration is 87 Hz, and their abdominal terga is 163 Hz. [13] X. californica can adjust its frequency to different types of flowers. [12]
Xylocopa californica inhabit the deserts of southwestern North America and endure high temperatures while they forage. [11] Foraging in these high temperatures may cause thermoregulatory problems for the bee, which is increased by the heat released from the muscular activity needed for their flight. [11] Unlike other insects, they can fly in temperatures as high as 48°C, which would be deadly for others, but can fly for a short period of time. [11] On the other hand, they can not withstand temperatures lower than 10-15 °C. [11]
Xylocopa californica has many types of mating behaviors. [14] These include hovering near sites and chasing away other males, exhibiting female-defense polygyny. [14] Multiple males may try to grasp the female when she returns to the nest, then a struggle between the males may happen to be able to grasp the female midair to copulate; in particular, they look for virgin females because females only mate once in their lifetime. [14] [15] After a few seconds, they separate, and the male returns to its hovering area. [15] Other males may patrol more than one nest and shuttle throughout many sites in a day. [14] If they are not patrolling the nests, then they may exhibit scramble competition at flowering sites, where they hope to catch a female. [14] The males are territorial, but they do not have a stinger. [2]
Xylocopa californica carve their nest in wood. [2] They dig into the wood using their sharp mandibles while they vibrate their body- they do not eat the wood. [2] They dig a tunnel in substrates such as live or dead wood and hollow stems of Yucca and Agave plants, then dig to the right and left, creating a T-shape nest. [2]
Their nest's success depends on the available pollen and nectar found in the area. [10] A suitable nest substrate is needed for their reproduction and survival; the quantity of stalks in the area is important in determining their total nest density. [10]
Xylocopa californica does not have many predators, but in the southwest of Northern America, the ladder-backed woodpecker, Dendrocopos scalaria, has been observed to attack their nests. [10] And the bee fly, Anthrax simson, is a parasite of their nests [10]
There are reports of the honey bee, Apis mellifera , having negative effects on X. californica populations. The carpenter bees are attracted to the floral scents of the honey produced by the honey bees; X. californica may come near or inside their hives and get attacked by the hive resulting in the death of the carpenter bee. [16]
The fungus Ascosphaera apis is generally found in the larva of the European honey bee, Apis mellifera , causing the larva to be mummified. [17] It has also been found in X. californica, except the infected larva does not look the same as the honey bee's; they develop spore cysts beneath the larval integument. [17] X. californica are not the natural hosts of this fungus, but they may be infected if they visit the same plants as other infected honey bees. [17]
The species has three named subspecies, defined solely by coloration and geography: [1]
A honey bee is a eusocial flying insect within the genus Apis of the bee clade, all native to mainland Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosmopolitan distribution of honey bees, introducing multiple subspecies into South America, North America, and Australia.
Carpenter bees are species in the genus Xylocopa of the subfamily Xylocopinae. The genus includes some 500 bees in 31 subgenera. The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant material such as dead wood or bamboo. The main exceptions are species in the subgenus Proxylocopa, which dig nesting tunnels in suitable soil.
Mason bee is a name now commonly used for species of bees in the genus Osmia, of the family Megachilidae. Mason bees are named for their habit of using mud or other "masonry" products in constructing their nests, which are made in naturally occurring gaps such as between cracks in stones or other small dark cavities. When available, some species preferentially use hollow stems or holes in wood made by wood-boring insects.
Habropoda laboriosa, the southeastern blueberry bee, is a bee in the family Apidae. It is native to the eastern United States. It is regarded as the most efficient pollinator of southern rabbiteye blueberries, because the flowers require buzz pollination, and H. laboriosa is one of the few bees that exhibit this behavior. It is active for only a few weeks of the year, while the blueberries are in flower during early spring, when the temperature is warm and humid. H. laboriosa are solitary bees that live alone but nest in close proximity with other nests of their species. They have similar features to bumble bees, but they are smaller in size compared to them. H. laboriosa are arthropods so they have segmented bodies that are composed of the head, thorax, and abdomen.
Xylocopa virginica, sometimes referred to as the eastern carpenter bee, extends through the eastern United States and into Canada. They are sympatric with Xylocopa micans in much of southeastern United States. They nest in various types of wood and eat pollen and nectar. In X. virginica, dominant females do not focus solely on egg-laying, as in other bee species considered to have "queens". Instead, dominant X. virginica females are responsible for a full gamut of activities including reproduction, foraging, and nest construction, whereas subordinate bees may engage in little activity outside of guarding the nest.
In zoology, a palynivore /pəˈlɪnəvɔːɹ/, meaning "pollen eater" is an herbivorous animal which selectively eats the nutrient-rich pollen produced by angiosperms and gymnosperms. Most true palynivores are insects or mites. The category in its strictest application includes most bees, and a few kinds of wasps, as pollen is often the only solid food consumed by all life stages in these insects. However, the category can be extended to include more diverse species. For example, palynivorous mites and thrips typically feed on the liquid content of the pollen grains without actually consuming the exine, or the solid portion of the grain. Additionally, the list is expanded greatly if one takes into consideration species where either the larval or adult stage feeds on pollen, but not both. There are other wasps which are in this category, as well as many beetles, flies, butterflies, and moths. One such example of a bee species that only consumes pollen in its larval stage is the Apis mellifera carnica. There is a vast array of insects that will feed opportunistically on pollen, as will various birds, orb-weaving spiders and other nectarivores.
Bees can suffer serious effects from toxic chemicals in their environments. These include various synthetic chemicals, particularly insecticides, as well as a variety of naturally occurring chemicals from plants, such as ethanol resulting from the fermentation of organic materials. Bee intoxication can result from exposure to ethanol from fermented nectar, ripe fruits, and manmade and natural chemicals in the environment.
The East African lowland honey bee is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the Cape honey bee. This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the Africanized bees spreading through North and South America.
Bombus lapidarius is a species of bumblebee in the subgenus Melanobombus. Commonly known as the red-tailed bumblebee, B. lapidarius can be found throughout much of Central Europe. Known for its distinctive black and red body, this social bee is important in pollination.
The western honey bee or European honey bee is the most common of the 7–12 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name Apis is Latin for 'bee', and mellifera is the Latin for 'honey-bearing' or 'honey-carrying', referring to the species' production of honey.
Xylocopa sonorina, the valley carpenter bee or Hawaiian carpenter bee, is a species of carpenter bee found from western Texas to northern California, and the eastern Pacific islands. Females are black while males are golden-brown with green eyes.
Apis cerana, the eastern honey bee, Asiatic honey bee or Asian honey bee, is a species of honey bee native to South, Southeast and East Asia. This species is the sister species of Apis koschevnikovi and both are in the same subgenus as the western (European) honey bee, Apis mellifera. A. cerana is known to live sympatrically along with Apis koschevnikovi within the same geographic location. Apis cerana colonies are known for building nests consisting of multiple combs in cavities containing a small entrance, presumably for defense against invasion by individuals of another nest. The diet of this honey bee species consists mostly of pollen and nectar, or honey. Moreover, Apis cerana is known for its highly social behavior, reflective of its classification as a type of honey bee.
Anthidium maculosum is a species of bee in the family Megachilidae, the leaf-cutter, carder, or mason bees. It is a solitary bee where the males are territorial and the females take part in polyandry. The males of A. maculosum differ from most other males of bee species because the males are significantly larger than females. In addition, subordinate males that act as satellites are smaller than territory-owning males. This species can be found predominately in Mexico and the United States.
Bombus fervidus, the golden northern bumble bee or yellow bumblebee, is a species of bumblebee native to North America. It has a yellow-colored abdomen and thorax. Its range includes the North American continent, excluding much of the southern United States, Alaska, and the northern parts of Canada. It is common in cities and farmland, with populations concentrated in the Northeastern part of the United States. It is similar in color and range to its sibling species, Bombus californicus, though sometimes also confused with the American bumblebee or black and gold bumblebee. It has complex behavioral traits, which includes a coordinated nest defense to ward off predators. B. fervidus is an important pollinator, so recent population decline is a particular concern.
Peponapis pruinosa is a species of solitary bee in the tribe Eucerini, the long-horned bees. Its common name is the eastern cucurbit bee. It may be called the squash bee, but this name can also apply to other species in its genus, as well as the other squash bee genus, Xenoglossa. This bee occurs in North America from the East Coast of the United States to the West Coast and into Mexico. It is an oligolege, specializing on a few host plants, the squashes and gourds of genus Cucurbita. Its range expanded as human agriculture spread throughout North America and squash plants became more abundant and widespread. It may also have spread naturally as the range of its favored wild host plant Cucurbita foetidissima expanded.
The Oriental carpenter bee, Xylocopa nasalis, or Xylocopa (Biluna) nasalis, is a species of carpenter bee. It is widely distributed in Southeast Asian countries. It is a major pollinator within its ecosystem, and is often mistaken for a bumblebee. The species leads a solitary lifestyle with a highly female-biased colony in the nest.
Xylocopa sulcatipes is a large Arabian carpenter bee. These multivoltine bees take part in social nesting and cooperative nesting. They are metasocial carpenter bees that nest in thin dead branches. One or more cooperating females build many brood cells. They have been extensively studied in Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Xylocopa pubescens is a species of large carpenter bee. Females form nests by excavation with their mandibles, often in dead or soft wood. X. pubescens is commonly found in areas extending from India to Northeast and West Africa. It must reside in these warm climates because it requires a minimum ambient temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in order to forage.
Xylocopa micans, also known as the southern carpenter bee, is a species of bee within Xylocopa, the genus of carpenter bees. The southern carpenter bee can be found mainly in the coastal and gulf regions of the southeastern United States, as well as Mexico and Guatemala. Like all Xylocopa bees, X. micans bees excavate nests in woody plant material. However, unlike its sympatric species Xylocopa virginica, X. micans has not been found to construct nest galleries in structural timbers of building, making it less of an economic nuisance to humans. Carpenter bees have a wide range of mating strategies between different species. The southern carpenter bee exhibits a polymorphic mating strategy, with its preferred method of mating changing as the season progresses from early spring to mid summer. Like most bees in its genus, the southern carpenter bee is considered a solitary bee because it does not live in colonies.
Bombus vancouverensis, the Vancouver Island Bumblebee, is a common species of eusocial bumblebee of the subgenus Pyrobombus. B. vancouverensis inhabits mountainous regions of western North America, where it has long been considered as a synonym of Bombus bifarius, and essentially all of the literature on bifarius refers instead to vancouverensis. B. vancouverensis has been identified as one of the two species of bumblebee observed to use pheromones in kin recognition. The other is the frigid bumblebee, Bombus frigidus.