History
The term historic firearm refers to armaments used prior to the 20th Century. Firearms vary greatly in type, function, firing mechanisms, and decorative elements. Firearms are composite objects, meaning they are made of different materials. [1] Generally, the core components of historic firearms are metal (iron, steel, brass) and wood. Decorative elements may include other metals like gold or silver, and organic materials such as bone, antler, and ivory. Animal hide and sinew may also have been used to repair damaged firearms or build a new weapon using multiple parts. Historic firearms are identified by barrel style, how they are loaded, and by lock, the firing mechanism. Firearms can first be classified by the barrel style which is described as either a smoothbore or rifle. The barrel of a smoothbore has a smooth interior whereas a rifle barrel has a helical grove cut into it [2] Historic firearms may be grouped based on how they are loaded; they will be referred to as muzzle-loaded or breech-loaded. Muzzle-loaded firearms are loaded through the front end of the barrel [3] and were typically left loaded and ready for use [4] A muzzle-loaded firearm means that a lock was used to hold and ignite the gunpower which fired the gun. [2] Breech-loaded firearms, first introduced in the 16th century, are loaded with cartridges or shells through the rear of the barrel and have a variety of ignition switches. [3] [4] A third way historic firearms can also be categorized is by their firing mechanism known as a lock. Several types of locks have been developed over the centuries; however, the most common types found in the United States are the matchlock, wheel-lock, flintlock, and percussion cap.
Types of Historic Firearms
The earliest lock was the Matchlock that used a match to ignite the powder. These were smoothbore and muzzle-loaded. The Harquebus (Arquebus) and muskets prior to the 17th century are two examples of a matchlock [5] The Wheellock, was developed around 1500, used a spring loaded wheel to create an ignition. Like the matchlock, wheel-locks were smoothbore and muzzle-loaded. Muskets and pistols were made with the wheel-lock. Developed in the 17th century, the Flintlock used a flint strike to ignite the gunpower and fire the weapon. Flintlocks were used for a variety of firearms, ranging from pistols to muskets and rifles. Their barrels could be smoothbore or rifle and were muzzle-loaded or breech-loaded. The Percussion Cap was introduced in the early 1800s and eventually replaced the flintlock. The percussion cap lock was very similar to the flintlock and many flintlocks were converted into percussion caps. Percussion cap firearms were muzzle-loaded, but as with flintlocks, they could have a smooth or rifled barrel.
Agents of Deterioration and Preventative Conservation
Agents of deterioration are the forces that cause physical, chemical, and biological damage and lead to irreversible losses to museum collections [6] Preventative conservators work to maintain the health of museum collections by taking steps to prevent or reduce the effects of agents of deterioration on objects.
Physical Forces
Physical forces may damage objects directly or cause indirect damage through the collision between the object and parts or other objects [7] Damage to objects is the result of five possible physical forces: impact, shock, vibration, abrasion, and pressure. [7] For historic firearms the highest risk of damage is from impact. If not held properly, there is a risk that the firearm may be dropped or bumped into surrounding objects or fixtures. Impact damage can also happen if the firearm is not mounted correctly when it is on display and it falls. Damage from impact may cause cracking, breaking, and chipping of wood and other organic materials; and may dent, scratch, or break off metal components. To reduce the risk of damage by physical forces, historic firearms should be supported with both hands and held in front of the body, have proper display mounts, and be stored in appropriate cases padded with microfoam. The person handling the firearm should exercise caution and be aware of his/her surroundings when moving the object to avoid bumping it into other firearms, objects, or fixtures.
Incorrect Temperature
Incorrect temperature can damage the wood components. A combination of long-term or excessive light exposure with high temperatures will cause the wood to crack and lose its shape. [4] High temperatures will have a similar effect on rawhide and semi-tanned leather, ivory, bone, and antler. To slow the process of deterioration, historic firearms should be kept at temperatures kept below 72 °F (22 °C) [8]
Incorrect Relative Humidity
Relative humidity affects both the wood and metal components of firearms. Too low of a humidity can cause the wood and other organic material to dry and crack. Humidity that is too high, above 65%, can cause the wood to swell, can corrode the metal, and conducive to mold growth. [1] The preferred range for relative humidity is between 45% and 50%; however, accounting for seasonal changes an acceptable range is 35% to 60%. [4] The preferred range of relative humidity for antler, bone, and ivory is 45% to 55% [9] Rawhide or semi-tanned leather, if used on the firearm, is also affected by humidity. Animal hide will absorb moisture creating an ideal habitat for mold growth and if the humidity is too low, the hide will split or potentially damage the firearm. As with antler, bone, and ivory, animal hide is most stable with a relative humidity of 45% to 55% [10]
Water
Water is damaging to most historic objects. For historic firearms, water will cause corrosion of metal components, swell wood, and encourage mold growth. Water will also cause antler, bone, and ivory to swell. [9] Animal rawhide and semi-tanned leather will absorb moisture and will be at risk for mold growth. It could also become discolored. Historic firearms should be stored away or protected from potential water sources, such as exposed water pipes or off the ground if there is a risk of flooding.
Fire
Historic firearms are at risk for damage if they are exposed to fire and can result in the loss of the object. Wood and other organic materials will burn, and metal may melt or become disfigured. If the firearm has not been checked for residual gunpowder or lodged ammunition and is still loaded, the fire may ignite the gunpowder and result in an accidental discharge. Firearms should be kept away from combustible chemicals and objects.
Light, UV, Infrared
High light levels are harmful to the organic materials found on historic firearms. Long term or high intensity exposure to light will cause darkening or fading of wood, ivory, bone, and antler, depending on the material. [4] Exposure to UV light will fade and bleach wood, and infrared light will dry and fade the wood components. [1] To prevent damage from light exposure, UV filters can be used on lights and window and display glass. Light sources for display cases should be positioned outside of the case. After reaching the maximum exposure of 100 lux for eight hours per day, six days a week for a year, [1] the historic firearm should be removed from display and stored in a box or cabinet.
Pests
Pests are insects and animals that disfigure, damage, and destroy museum collections [11] The organic materials on historic firearms are susceptible to pest infestation. Woodboring beetle s and rodents are a threat to the wood materials. Bone, antler, ivory, and rawhide or semi-tanned leather attract Dermestidae, as the black carpet beetle and black larder beetle which feed on protein. Firearm collections should be monitored for evidence of borings, larva castings, and gnaw marks. Regular cleaning of the firearm and display area will help to prevent a pest infestation.
Pollutants
Pollutants are environmental agents, chemical or physical, that can alter the aesthetic appearance or damage objects [12] Dust, composed of dirt, fibers, skin cells, and pollen, is a common pollutant, but if not removed can lead to damage. On historic firearms, dust will absorb moisture, attract pests, and abrade the surface. [3] Regular cleaning will reduce the build-up of dust and other particulate matter. Other pollutants will react chemically with the object, potentially causing permanent damage. Improper storage or display materials can react to the metal components and cause corrosion. One material that should not be stored with firearms is leather which will corrode the metal as it off-gases. [3] Storage and display materials can be tested using the Oddy Test to determine if they will react to the firearm's components.
Disassociation
Disassociation is the loss of data, objects, or association between objects [13] It can occur when documentation is lost, objects or their parts are damaged or removed and lost. With historic firearms, disassociation can happen when the weapon is disassembled for cleaning or the firing pins are removed to deter theft or accidental firing. Without proper labeling and tracking, the parts may be lost. Serial numbers and maker's marks can be removed if the firearm is cleaned with abrasive chemicals. To prevent disassociation, all components should be labeled, serial numbers noted, and if the part is removed its location should be recorded. When cleaning the firearm, appropriate cleaning agents and waxes should be used to prevent the loss of historical data.
Thieves and Vandals
In the United States, historic firearms do not need to be registered and are a popular collector's item, making them potential targets for theft. To deter theft museums may decide to remove the firing pin, thus making the gun inoperable and less desirable to thieves. When on display, firearms should be kept in cases made of acrylic, polycarbonate, or safety glass, and they should be locked or screwed shut. [4] In storage areas firearms should also be locked in a secure area or in metal drawer units and, there should be a minimal number of keys available to unlock display or storage cases [4] The keys also should not be easily replicated. If the firearms are used for research, researchers should be monitored by staff and not be allowed coats or backpacks in the research area because some historic firearms are quite small and could easily fit in a coat pocket.
Treatment
The conservation of historic firearms requires knowledge of the care and treatment of organic and inorganic materials. Treatment can range from simple cleaning to conservation-restoration and return to firing capabilities. Prior to treatment, three factors should be considered: has the source of the damage been eliminated, what is the extent of the damage, and what are the long-term effects of the treatment. [4] General guidelines for conservation treatment of any object is to make sure the treatment is reversible, treatments and materials should be chemically and physically compatible, and the treatment must use stable chemicals that will not off-gas or react with the object creating further deterioration. [1] Other than general cleaning as part of a museum's housekeeping routine, treatment should be performed by a conservator.
Cleaning
Cleaning historic firearms begins with an examination of its condition to ensure it can withstand the cleaning procedure. A partial disassembly may be necessary; however, it is not recommended for matchlocks and wheellocks as their screws and pins are not easily removed. Loose dust and dirt can be removed with a soft brush, such as a hake brush, and the debris directed toward a vacuum nozzle. Commercial cleaning products and varnishes, and brass and silver polishes should be avoided as these items may damage the firearm. Sometimes conservation grade waxes, like Renaissance wax, are used to improve the firearm's appearance and guard against dust.
Conservation-Restoration
Conservation-restoration work on historic firearms is a series of procedures designed to stabilize, repair or restore parts, and stop deterioration. [1] Stabilizing a firearm means establishing the ideal environment conditions, removing corrosion, replacing missing components, and repairing broken parts. For example, if the wrist of a long arm is cracked, a conservator would repair the breakage which would stabilize the firearm, enabling its use for display or research. The goal of restoration work may be returning the firearm to original form, returning all the mechanical components to working order, or returning it to firing capabilities. [1] Conservation-restoration of historic firearms requires the skilled work of a conservator.
A muzzleloader is any firearm in which the user loads the projectile and the propellant charge into the muzzle end of the gun. This is distinct from the modern designs of breech-loading firearms, in which user loads the ammunition into the breech end of the barrel. The term "muzzleloader" applies to both rifled and smoothbore type muzzleloaders, and may also refer to the marksman who specializes in the shooting of such firearms. The firing methods, paraphernalia and mechanism further divide both categories as do caliber.
Flintlock is a general term for any firearm that uses a flint-striking ignition mechanism, the first of which appeared in Western Europe in the early 16th century. The term may also apply to a particular form of the mechanism itself, also known as the true flintlock, that was introduced in the early 17th century, and gradually replaced earlier firearm-ignition technologies, such as the matchlock, the wheellock, and the earlier flintlock mechanisms such as the snaplock and snaphaunce.
A wheellock, wheel-lock, or wheel lock is a friction-wheel mechanism which creates a spark that causes a firearm to fire. It was the next major development in firearms technology after the matchlock and the first self-igniting firearm. Its name is from its rotating steel wheel to provide ignition. Developed in Europe around 1500, it was used alongside the matchlock and later the snaplock (1540s), the snaphance (1560s), and the flintlock.
A gun barrel is a crucial part of gun-type weapons such as small firearms, artillery pieces, and air guns. It is the straight shooting tube, usually made of rigid high-strength metal, through which a contained rapid expansion of high-pressure gas(es) is used to propel a projectile out of the front end (muzzle) at a high velocity. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, and the diameter of the bore is called its caliber, usually measured in inches or millimetres.
The lock of a firearm is the mechanism used to initiate firing. It is a historical term, in that it generally refers to such mechanisms used in muzzle-loading and early breech-loading firearms. Side-lock refers to the type of construction, in which the individual components of the mechanism are mounted either side of a single plate. The assembly is then mounted to the stock on the side of the firearm. In modern firearm designs, the mechanism to initiate firing is generally constructed within the frame or receiver of the firearm and is referred to as the firing or trigger mechanism.
A snaplock is a type of lock for firing a gun or is a gun fired by such a lock.
With respect to cultural property, conservation science is the interdisciplinary study of the conservation of art, architecture, technical art history and other cultural works through the use of scientific inquiry. General areas of research include the technology and structure of artistic and historic works. In other words, the materials and techniques from which cultural, artistic and historic objects are made.
The conservation and restoration of ivory objects is the process of maintaining and preserving objects that are ivory or include ivory material. Conservation and restoration are aimed at preserving the ivory material and physical form along with the objects condition and treatment documentation. Activities dedicated to the preservation of ivory objects include preventing agents of deterioration that specifically connect with ivory as a material, preventative conservation, and treatment of ivory objects. Conservators, curators, collections managers, and other museum personnel are in charge of taking the necessary measurements to ensure that ivory objects are well maintained and will make the decision for any conservation and restoration of the objects.
Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property is a term used to denote the conservation of movable cultural property items in libraries, archives, museums and private collections. Conservation encompasses all the actions taken toward the long-term preservation of cultural heritage. Activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, which is supported by research and education. Object conservation is specifically the actions taken to preserve and restore cultural objects. The objects span a wide range of materials from a variety of cultures, time periods, and functions. Object conservation can be applied to both art objects and artifacts. Conservation practice aims to prevent damage from occurring, a process known as 'preventive conservation'. The purpose of preventive conservation is to maintain, and where possible enhance, the condition of an object, as well as managing deterioration risks, such as handling and environmental conditions. Historically, object conservation was focused on the category of fine arts but now many different types of objects are conserved. Each type of object material, typically denoted by organic or inorganic then the specific medium, requires a specialized professional conservator and often requires collaborative work between museum staff, scientists, and conservators.
In firearms and artillery, the primer is the chemical and/or device responsible for initiating the propellant combustion that will propel the projectiles out of the gun barrel.
Conservation and restoration of ceramic objects is a process dedicated to the preservation and protection of objects of historical and personal value made from ceramic. Typically, this activity of conservation-restoration is undertaken by a conservator-restorer, especially when dealing with an object of cultural heritage. Ceramics are created from a production of coatings of inorganic, nonmetallic materials using heating and cooling to create a glaze. These coatings are often permanent and sustainable for utilitarian and decorative purposes. The cleaning, handling, storage, and in general treatment of ceramics is consistent with that of glass because they are made of similar oxygen-rich components, such as silicates. In conservation ceramics are broken down into three groups: unfired clay, earthenware or terracotta, and stoneware and porcelain.
The conservation and restoration of shipwreck artifacts is the process of caring for cultural heritage that has been part of a shipwreck. Oftentimes these cultural artifacts have been underwater for a great length of time. Without conservation, most artifacts would perish and important historical data would be lost. In archaeological terms, it is usually the responsibility of an archaeologist and conservator to ensure that material recovered from a shipwreck is properly cared for. The conservation phase is often time-consuming and expensive, which is one of the most important considerations when planning and implementing any action involving the recovery of artifacts from a shipwreck.
The conservation and restoration of wooden furniture is an activity dedicated to the preservation and protection of wooden furniture objects of historical and personal value. When applied to cultural heritage this activity is generally undertaken by a conservator-restorer. Furniture conservation and restoration can be divided into two general areas: structure and finish. Structure generally relates to wood and can be divided into solid, joined, and veneered wood. The finish of furniture can be painted or transparent.
The conservation and restoration of clocks refers to the care given to the physical and functional aspects of time measuring devices featuring "moving hands on a dial face" exclusive of watches. Care for clocks constitutes regulating the external environment, cleaning, winding, lubrication, pest-management, and repairing or replacing mechanical and aesthetic components to preserve or achieve the desired state as specified by the owner. Clocks are typically composed of multiple types of materials such as wood, metal, paint, plastic, etc., which have unique behaviors and environmental interactions, making treatment options complex. The materials used and the complexity of clockwork warrant having a Horological Conservator complete the work.
Conservation-restoration of bone, horn, and antler objects involves the processes by which the deterioration of objects either containing or made from bone, horn, and antler is contained and prevented. Their use has been documented throughout history in many societal groups as these materials are durable, plentiful, versatile, and naturally occurring/replenishing.
The conservation and restoration of paintings is carried out by professional painting conservators. Paintings cover a wide range of various mediums, materials, and their supports. Painting types include fine art to decorative and functional objects spanning from acrylics, frescoes, and oil paint on various surfaces, egg tempera on panels and canvas, lacquer painting, water color and more. Knowing the materials of any given painting and its support allows for the proper restoration and conservation practices. All components of a painting will react to its environment differently, and impact the artwork as a whole. These material components along with collections care will determine the longevity of a painting. The first steps to conservation and restoration is preventive conservation followed by active restoration with the artist's intent in mind.
The conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery is a sub-section of the broader topic of conservation and restoration of ceramic objects. Ancient Greek pottery is one of the most commonly found types of artifacts from the ancient Greek world. The information learned from vase paintings forms the foundation of modern knowledge of ancient Greek art and culture. Most ancient Greek pottery is terracotta, a type of earthenware ceramic, dating from the 11th century BCE through the 1st century CE. The objects are usually excavated from archaeological sites in broken pieces, or shards, and then reassembled. Some have been discovered intact in tombs. Professional conservator-restorers, often in collaboration with curators and conservation scientists, undertake the conservation-restoration of ancient Greek pottery.
The conservation of taxidermy is the ongoing maintenance and preservation of zoological specimens that have been mounted or stuffed for display and study. Taxidermy specimens contain a variety of organic materials, such as fur, bone, feathers, skin, and wood, as well as inorganic materials, such as burlap, glass, and foam. Due to their composite nature, taxidermy specimens require special care and conservation treatments for the different materials.
The conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts refers to the preservation of art and artifacts made of wood. Conservation and restoration in regards to cultural heritage is completed by a conservator-restorer.
The Conservation of South Asian household shrines is an activity dedicated to the preservation of household shrines from South Asia. When applied to cultural heritage, held by either museums or private collectors, this activity is generally undertaken by a conservator-restorer. South Asian shrines held in museum collections around the world are principally shrines relate to Hindu, Jain, or Buddhist households. Due to their original use and sacred nature, these shrines present unique conservation and restoration challenges for those tasked with their care.
