Cortinarius caperatus

Last updated

Contents

Cortinarius caperatus
C.caperatus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Cortinariaceae
Genus: Cortinarius
Species:
C. caperatus
Binomial name
Cortinarius caperatus
(Pers.) Fr. (1838)
Synonyms

Rozites caperata(Pers.) P. Karst.
Pholiota caperata(Pers.) Gillet
Dryophila caperata(Pers.) Quél.
Togaria caperata(Pers.) W.G. Sm.

Cortinarius caperatus
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svgUmbonate cap icon.svg Cap is convex or umbonate
Adnate gills icon2.svg Hymenium is adnate
Ring stipe icon.svg Stipe has a ring
Transparent spore print icon.svg
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is ochre to brown
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Choice.pngEdibility is choice

Cortinarius caperatus is an edible mushroom of the genus Cortinarius found in northern regions of Europe and North America. It was known as Rozites caperata for many years before genetic studies revealed that it belonged to the genus Cortinarius. The fruit bodies appear in autumn in coniferous and beech woods as well as heathlands in late summer and autumn. The ochre-coloured cap is up to 10 cm (4 in) across and has a fibrous surface. The clay-colored gills are attached to the stipe under the cap, and the stipe is whitish with a whitish ring. The Latin specific name, caperatus, means wrinkled, and refers to the distinctive texture of the cap. The flesh has a mild smell and flavor.

Popular with mushroom foragers, C. caperatus is picked seasonally in throughout Europe. Although mild-tasting and highly regarded, the mushrooms are often infested with maggots. In central Europe, old specimens could be confused with the poisonous Inosperma erubescens in summer. Fruiting bodies of C. caperatus have been found to bioaccumulate mercury and radioactive isotopes of caesium.

Taxonomy

The mushroom was originally described as Agaricus caperatus in 1796 by South African mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, who noted it grew in beech woods. [1] The specific epithet caperatus is Latin for "wrinkled". [2] Bohemian naturalist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz illustrated it in his Naturgetreue Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der essbaren, schädlichen und verdächtigen Schwämme, published between 1831 and 1846. [3] It was transferred to the genus Cortinarius by the Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838. [4] Later it was transferred to Pholiota in 1874 by French mycologist Claude Casimir Gillet, [5] a placement followed by Italian naturalist Pier Andrea Saccardo. [6] Finnish mycologist Petter Adolf Karsten established the genus Rozites in 1879 to accommodate the species—as Rozites caperatus—on the basis of the mushroom having a double veil; [7] that is, a partial veil—the remnants of which become a ring on the stipe—as well as a universal veil. [8] It was known as a Rozites species for many years. [8] Meanwhile, French mycologist Lucien Quélet classified Pholiota as a subgenus of Dryophila in 1886, resulting in Dryophila caperata being added to the species' synonymy. [9] Worthington George Smith placed it in his new genus Togaria (now considered a synonym of Agrocybe ). [10]

Genetic analysis in 2000 and 2002 showed that Rozites was not a discrete group and its members were nested within Cortinarius. [8] [11] This fungus was found to be closely related to the New Zealand species C. meleagris and C. subcastanellus , both also formerly of Rozites. [8] Hence it has once more been placed within Cortinarius. [12] Within the genus it is classified in the subgenus Cortinarius. [13]

Common names include the gypsy mushroom, [14] gypsy, [13] and wrinkled rozites. [15] In Finland, the common name is granny's nightcap. [2]

Description

Illustration by Albin Schmalfuss, 1897 Reifpilz-1.jpg
Illustration by Albin Schmalfuß, 1897

C. caperatus has a buff to brownish-ochre cap 5–10 cm (2–4 in) diameter, which is covered with whitish fibres. The surface has a wrinkled and furrowed texture. [15] It may have a lilac tinge when young. It is convex initially before expanding and flattening with a boss (umbo) in the centre. The stipe is 4–7 cm (1+5⁄8–2+3⁄4 in) high and 1–1.5 cm (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) thick and slightly swollen at the base, and is whitish with a whitish ring, which is initially attached to the cap. [16] Also known as a partial veil, this is a key identifying feature of the mushroom. [17] The clay-coloured gills are free—they do not reach the stipe under the cap. The spores give an ochre-brown spore print, and the warty almond-shaped spores measure 10–13  μm long by 8–9 μm wide. The flesh is cream-coloured and the flavor mild. [16]

Similar-looking North American species include Agrocybe praecox , which lacks the wrinkled cap and is found in cultivated areas, and Phaeolepiota aurea , which has powdery-granular surface. [14] In central Europe, old specimens could be mistaken for the highly poisonous Inosperma erubescens in summer, and young mushrooms for the inedible Cortinarius traganus , although the latter is readily distinguished by its unpleasant odour. [18]

Distribution and habitat

C. caperatus is found across northern Europe, mainly in Scandinavia, where it is common, although it is uncommon in Denmark and Iceland. [19] In the British Isles it is uncommon outside the Scottish Highlands [2] and the New Forest. [20] It has been classified as vulnerable in Germany and Great Britain and endangered in the Netherlands. [21] C. caperatus had become less common in the vicinity of Salzburg in Austria between 1937 and 1988, thought due to picking. [22]

It is widely found in northern parts of North America, [14] as far south as Mendocino County on the west coast. It is uncommon in California. [23] C. caperatus is a rare component of subarctic areas of western Greenland. [24] The fungus also grows in temperate Asia, having been recorded growing with bilberry near oriental beech ( Fagus orientalis ) and fir near Pamukova in the Marmara Region of Turkey. [25] It is also found in boggy areas of the taiga (boreal pine forest) in western Siberia. [26]

Fruiting bodies sprout from August to October in conifer and beech woods, as well as heather (often close by sphagnum) in Scotland. It is mycorrhizal but non-selective in its hosts. [2] Mushrooms appear from September to November in North America, [27] and July and August in Alaska. [28] It prefers acidic and sandy soils and avoids chalky ones, [29] and may be found in the same habitats as bay bolete ( Imleria badia ), brown roll-rim ( Paxillus involutus ), and chanterelles. [30] It forms relationships with Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ). [31] It is often found under Sitka spruce ( Picea sitchensis ), [23] or near huckleberry in North America. [14] In Alaska it grows with dwarf birch ( Betula nana ) and American dwarf birch ( B. glandulosa ). [28] In Greenland, it grows in association with white birch ( Betula pubescens ). [24]

Edibility

A plate of raw mushrooms on display in Prague Rozites caperatus 1.jpg
A plate of raw mushrooms on display in Prague

C. caperatus is a highly regarded edible mushroom with a mild to good flavour. [32] It is said to mix well with stronger-flavoured fungi such as chanterelles, boletes, brittlegills or milk-caps. [2] The mushroom can have a faintly bitter taste if eaten raw, but a pleasant nutty flavour when cooked. [28] It can readily be dried for later use, such as adding to soups and stews. [15] It is sold commercially in Finland, [33] and is a popular target of foragers in many parts of Europe. [34] The mushrooms are often found to be infested with maggots when picked. [30] Mycologist David Arora recommends discarding the tough stipes. [14]

Radioactivity and environmental contamination

The popularity of C. caperatus across Europe has led to safety concerns related to its propensity to accumulate contaminants. [35] Fungi are very efficient at absorbing radioactive isotopes of caesium from the soil and naturally have trace amounts of the element. Caesium may take the place of potassium, which exists in high concentrations in mushrooms. [34] C. caperatus bioaccumulates radioactive caesium 137Cs—a product of nuclear testing—much more than many other mushroom species. Levels dramatically rose after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. This is a potential health issue as picking and eating wild mushrooms is a popular pastime in central and eastern Europe. Elevated 137Cs levels were also found in ruminants that eat mushrooms in Scandinavia in the 1990s. [36] Mushrooms from Reggio Emilia in Italy were found to have raised levels of 134Cs. [34] C. caperatus from various sites across Poland has also been found to contain increased levels of mercury. [35]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partial veil</span> Mushroom anatomy

In mycology, a partial veil is a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics. Its role is to isolate and protect the developing spore-producing surface, represented by gills or tubes, found on the lower surface of the cap. A partial veil, in contrast to a universal veil, extends from the stem surface to the cap edge. The partial veil later disintegrates, once the fruiting body has matured and the spores are ready for dispersal. It might then give rise to a stem ring, or fragments attached to the stem or cap edge. In some mushrooms, both a partial veil and a universal veil may be present.

<i>Cortinarius rubellus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius rubellus, commonly known as the deadly webcap, is a species of fungus in the family Cortinariaceae, native to high-latitude temperate to subalpine forests of Eurasia and North America. Within the genus it belongs to a group known as the Orellani, all of which are highly toxic. Eating them results in kidney failure, which is often irreversible. The mushroom is generally tan to brown all over, with a conical to convex cap 2.5 to 8 centimetres in diameter, adnate gills and a 5.5 to 11 cm tall stipe.

<i>Cortinarius</i> Genus of mushrooms

Cortinarius is a globally distributed genus of mushrooms in the family Cortinariaceae. It is suspected to be the largest genus of agarics, containing over 2,000 widespread species. A common feature among all species in the genus Cortinarius is that young specimens have a cortina (veil) between the cap and the stem, hence the name, meaning curtained. Most of the fibres of the cortina are ephemeral and will leave no trace once gone, except for limited remnants on the stem or cap edge in some species. All have a rusty brown spore print. The common names cortinar and webcap refer to members of the genus. Due to dangerous toxicity of several species and the fact that it is difficult to distinguish between various species of the genus, non-expert consumption of mushrooms from the genus is discouraged.

<i>Leccinum scabrum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum scabrum, commonly known as the rough-stemmed bolete, scaber stalk, and birch bolete, is an edible mushroom in the family Boletaceae, and was formerly classified as Boletus scaber. The birch bolete is widespread in Europe, in the Himalayas in Asia, and elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, occurring only in mycorrhizal association with birch trees. It fruits from June to October. This mushroom is also becoming increasingly common in Australia and New Zealand where it is likely introduced.

<i>Leccinum aurantiacum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum aurantiacum is a species of fungus in the genus Leccinum found in forests of Eurasia and North America. It has a large, characteristically red-capped fruiting body. In North America, it is sometimes referred to by the common name red-capped scaber stalk. Some uncertainties exist regarding the taxonomic classification of this species in Europe and North America. It is considered edible, but must be cooked thoroughly.

<i>Cortinarius semisanguineus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius semisanguineus is a medium-sized mushroom with a pale brown to ochre cap, and bright blood-red gills. It belongs to the genus Cortinarius, a group collectively known as webcaps. It is found growing in conifer plantations, and has recently been given the fanciful common name of surprise webcap. In the past it has been called the red-gilled webcap.

<i>Cortinarius mucosus</i> Species of mushroom

Cortinarius mucosus, commonly known as the orange webcap or the slimy cortinarius, is a species of mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae. In North America, the species is more commonly associated with northern coniferous forests. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word mucosus, meaning mucus.

<i>Phlegmacium triumphans</i> Species of fungus

Phlegmacium triumphans, also known as the birch webcap, or yellow girdled webcap is a basidiomycete mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae. It is found in Europe and regarded as edible by some authorities, although others call it suspect and it resembles inedible species.

<i>Cortinarius violaceus</i> Species of fungus native to the Northern Hemisphere

Cortinarius violaceus, commonly known as the violet webcap or violet cort, is a fungus in the webcap genus Cortinarius native across the Northern Hemisphere. The fruit bodies are dark purple mushrooms with caps up to 15 cm (6 in) across, sporting gills underneath. The stalk measures 6 to 12 centimetres by 1 to 2 cm, sometimes with a thicker base. The dark flesh has a smell reminiscent of cedar wood. Forming symbiotic (ectomycorrhizal) relationships with the roots of various plant species, C. violaceus is found predominantly in conifer forests in North America and deciduous forests in Europe.

<i>Cortinarius praestans</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius praestans, also known as the goliath webcap, is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Cortinarius. The mushroom has orangish-yellow caps that reach up to 20 cm (7.9 in) in diameter, and thick club-shaped stipes up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long. The edible mushroom is found in Europe.

<i>Cortinarius vanduzerensis</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius vanduzerensis is a species of mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae. Described as new to science in 1972, it is known only from the Pacific Northwest region of North America, where it grows under conifers such as spruce, hemlock, and Douglas-fir. The fruit bodies of the fungus, or mushrooms, have a slimy dark chestnut-brown cap that becomes deeply radially grooved or corrugated in maturity, and reaches diameters of up to 8 cm. The gills on the underside of the cap are initially pinkish-buff before becoming pale brown when the spores mature. The stem is lavender, measuring 10–18 cm (4–7 in) long and 1–2 cm thick. The mushroom produces a rusty-brown spore print, with individual spores measuring 12–14 by 7–8 micrometers. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined, and it has been described as "much too slippery to be of value".

<i>Cortinarius camphoratus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius camphoratus, commonly known as the goatcheese webcap, is an agaric fungus in the family Cortinariaceae. The fungus is found in Europe and North America, where its fruit bodies (mushrooms) grow on the ground in a mycorrhizal association with spruce and firs in coniferous forests. Mushrooms are characterized by pale blue lilac colors when young, and a strong distinctive odor. Sources disagree as to the edibility of the mushroom, but they are generally not recommended for eating.

<i>Floccularia albolanaripes</i> Species of fungus

Floccularia albolanaripes is a species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae. Mushrooms are characterized by their yellow caps with a brownish center and scales over the margin, and the conspicuous remains of a partial veil that is left on the stipe. The species grows in the Pacific Northwest and the Rocky Mountains of North America, and in India.

<i>Austrocortinarius australiensis</i> Species of fungus

Austrocortinarius australiensis, commonly known as the skirt webcap, is a species of mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae which is native to Australia and New Zealand. The white mushrooms appear in autumn and can grow very large, with their caps reaching 30 cm (12 in) in diameter.

<i>Cortinarius alboviolaceus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius alboviolaceus is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Cortinarius native to Europe and North America.

<i>Cortinarius sanguineus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius sanguineus, commonly known as the blood red webcap or blood red cortinarius, is a species of fungus in the genus Cortinarius.

<i>Cortinarius trivialis</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius trivialis is a species of inedible fungus in the genus Cortinarius.

<i>Stropharia caerulea</i> Species of fungus

Stropharia caerulea, commonly known as the blue roundhead, is a species of mushroom forming fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is a somewhat common species found in Europe and North America, where it grows as a saprophyte in meadows, roadsides, hedgerows, gardens, and woodchip mulch. S. caerulea was officially described to science in 1979, although it was known to be a distinct species for about two centuries before that. The scientific name Stropharia cyanea, as defined by Tuomikoski in 1953, and used by several later authors, is a synonym of S. caerulea.

<i>Cortinarius metallicus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius metallicus, originally described as Rozites metallica and commonly known as the steel blue rozites, is a species of mushroom native to Australia.

<i>Cortinarius evernius</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius evernius is an inedible fungus in the family Cortinariaceae. Cortinarius evernius is grayish brown or grayish purple. The cap is convex and it has remnants of the membrane. The stipe is grayish purple and it has remnants of the membrane in a zig-zag pattern. The gills are greyish purple in the beginning, then brownish. The mushroom grows in coniferous forests for example, near swamps.

References

  1. ↑ Persoon CH (1796). Observationes mycologicae. Vol. 1. Apud Petrum Phillippum Wolf. pp. 48–49. Archived from the original on 2016-06-16. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Nilson S, Persson O (1977). Fungi of Northern Europe 1: Larger Fungi (Excluding Gill-Fungi). Penguin. p. 86. ISBN   978-0-14-063005-3.
  3. ↑ von Krombholz JV (1831–1846). Naturgetreue Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der essbaren, schädlichen und verdächtigen Schwämme (in German). Vol. Plates. In Commission in der J.G. Calve'schen Buchhandlung. plate 73 (10–12).
  4. ↑ Fries EM (1838). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici: Seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum [A Critical Study of Mycology: A Synopsis of the Hymenomycetes] (in Latin). Vol. 1–2. Regiae Academiae Typographia. p. 256.
  5. ↑ Gillet CG (1874). Les Hyménomycètes, ou, Description de tous les champignons (fungi) : qui croissent en France, avec l'indication de leurs propriétés utiles ou vénéneuses. Vol. 3. Ch. Thomas. p. Plate 517.
  6. ↑ Saccardo PA (1887). Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum. Vol. 5. Patavii (Padua): sumptibus auctoris. pp. 736–37.
  7. ↑ Karsten PA (1879). "Rozites caperatus". Bidrag till Kännedom av Finlands Natur och Folk / Utgivna av Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten (in Swedish). 32: 290.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Peintner U, Horak E, Moser M, Vilgalys R (2002). "Phylogeny of Rozites, Cuphocybe and Rapacea inferred from ITS and LSU rDNA sequences". Mycologia. 94 (4): 620–29. doi:10.2307/3761713. JSTOR   3761713. PMID   21156535.
  9. ↑ Quélet L. (1886). Enchiridion Fungorum in Europa media et praesertim in Gallia Vigentium (in Latin). Octave Dion. p. 66.
  10. ↑ Smith WG (1908). Synopsis of the British Basidiomycetes ; a descriptive catalogue of the drawings and specimens in the Department of botany, British museum. Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum. p. 121.
  11. ↑ Høiland K, Holst-Jensen A (2000). "Cortinarius Phylogeny and Possible Taxonomic Implications of ITS rDNA Sequences". Mycologia. 92 (4): 694–710. doi:10.2307/3761427. JSTOR   3761427.
  12. ↑ Peintner U, Horak E, Moser M, Vilgalys R (2002). "Rozites, Cuphocybe and Rapacea are taxonomic synonyms of Cortinarius: New combinations and new names". Mycotaxon. 83: 447–51.
  13. 1 2 Buczacki S, Shields C, Ovenden D (2012). Collins Fungi Guide. Collins. p. 322. ISBN   978-0-00-746648-1.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Arora D (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi (2nd ed.). Ten Speed Press. p.  412. ISBN   978-0-89815-169-5.
  15. 1 2 3 Lamaison J-L, Polese J-M (2005). The Great Encyclopedia of Mushrooms. Könemann. p. 138. ISBN   978-3-8331-1239-3.
  16. 1 2 Phillips R (2006). Mushrooms. Pan MacMillan. p. 207. ISBN   978-0-330-44237-4.
  17. ↑ Courtecuisse R. (1999). Mushrooms of Britain and Europe. Collins Wildlife Trust guides. Harpercollins. pp. 456–57. ISBN   978-0-00-220012-7.
  18. ↑ Zeitlmayr L. (1976). Wild Mushrooms:An Illustrated Handbook. Garden City Press. p. 79. ISBN   978-0-584-10324-3.
  19. ↑ Gry J, Andersson C (2014). "Cortinarius caperatus (Pers.) Fr. (Rozites caperatus (Pers.) P. Karst.)". Mushrooms traded as food. Vol II sec 2: Nordic risk assessments and background on edible mushrooms, suitable for commercial marketing and background lists for industry, trade and food inspection. Risk assessments of mushrooms on the four guidance lists. Nordic Council of Ministers. pp. 164–5. ISBN   978-92-893-2705-3.
  20. ↑ Fungal Records Database for the British Isles "Species data - British fungi". British Mycological Society. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
  21. ↑ Arnolds E (1995). "Conservation and management of natural populations of edible fungi". Canadian Journal of Botany. 73 (S1): 987–98. doi:10.1139/b95-349.
  22. ↑ Rücker T, Peer T (1988). "Pilzsoziologische Untersuchungen am Stubnerkogel (Gasteiner Tal, Salzburg, Osterreich) unter Berücksichtigung der Schwermetallsituation". Nova Hedwigia (in German). 47: 1–38.
  23. 1 2 Siegel N, Schwarz C (2016). Mushrooms of the Redwood Coast: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fungi. Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony. p. 202. ISBN   978-1-60774-818-2.
  24. 1 2 Elborne SA, Knudsen H (1990). "Larger Fungi Associated with Betula pubescens in Greenland". In Fredskild B, Ødum S (eds.). The Greenland Mountain Birch Zone, Southwest Greenland. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 77–80. ISBN   978-87-635-1204-6.
  25. ↑ Akata I, Kabaktepe Ş, Akgül H (2015). "Cortinarius caperatus (Pers.) Fr., A New Record For Turkish Mycobiota". Kastamonu University Journal of Forestry Faculty. 15 (1): 86–89. doi: 10.17475/kuofd.94670 .
  26. ↑ Filippova NV, Thormann MN (2014). "Communities of larger fungi of ombrotrophic bogs in West Siberia" (PDF). Mires and Peat. 14: 1–22.
  27. ↑ Baroni TJ. (2017). Mushrooms of the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada. Timber Press Field Guide. Timber Press. p. 308. ISBN   978-1-60469-814-5.
  28. 1 2 3 Laursen GA, McArthur N (2016) [1994]. Alaska's Mushrooms: A Wide-Ranging Guide. Graphic Arts Books. p. 71. ISBN   9781943328765.
  29. ↑ Pegler D (1983). Mushrooms and Toadstools. Littlehampton Book Services Ltd. p. 34. ISBN   978-0-85533-500-7.
  30. 1 2 Haas H (1969). The Young Specialist Looks at Fungi. Burke. p. 124. ISBN   978-0-222-79414-7.
  31. ↑ Trappe JM (1962). "Fungus Associates of Ectotrophic Mycorrhizae". The Botanical Review. 28 (4): 538–606. Bibcode:1962BotRv..28..538T. doi:10.1007/bf02868758. JSTOR   4353659. S2CID   42698903.
  32. ↑ Miller Jr., Orson K.; Miller, Hope H. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, CN: FalconGuide. p. 299. ISBN   978-0-7627-3109-1.
  33. ↑ Pelkonen R, Alfthan G, Järvinen O (2008). Element Concentrations in Wild Edible Mushrooms in Finland (PDF). Finnish Environment Institute. p. 32. ISBN   978-952-11-3153-0.
  34. 1 2 3 Zalewska T, Cocchi L, Falandysz J (2016). "Radiocaesium in Cortinarius spp. mushrooms in the regions of the Reggio Emilia in Italy and Pomerania in Poland". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 23 (22): 23169–74. Bibcode:2016ESPR...2323169Z. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7541-0. PMC   5101288 . PMID   27600726.
  35. 1 2 Falandysz J (2014). "Distribution of mercury in Gypsy Cortinarius caperatus mushrooms from several populations: An efficient accumulator species and estimated intake of element". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 110: 68–72. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.08.018. PMID   25199584.
  36. ↑ Kalač P (2001). "A review of edible mushroom radioactivity" (PDF). Food Chemistry. 75: 29–35. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(01)00171-6.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.