Curvularia inaequalis

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Curvularia inaequalis
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Dothideomycetes
Order: Pleosporales
Family: Pleosporaceae
Genus: Curvularia
Species:
C. inaequalis
Binomial name
Curvularia inaequalis
(Shear) Boedijn (1907)
Synonyms
  • Helminthosporium inaequaleShear (1907)
  • Acrothecium arenariumMoreau & V. Moreau (1941)

Curvularia inaequalis is a plant saprobe [1] that resides in temperate and subtropical environments. [2] It is commonly found in the soils of forage grasses and grains. [3] The species has been observed in a broad distribution of countries including Turkey, France, Canada, The United States, Japan and India. [4] This species is dematiaceous and a hyphomycete. [5]

Contents

History and taxonomy

The Curvularia genus can be identified by its spiral borne phaeophragmospores, which contain both hyaline end cells and disproportionately large cells. [6] They possess conidia with differing curvature and number of septa. [6] C. inaequalis was first described in 1907 by ecologist Cornelius Lott Shear. [7] The fungus was isolated from diseased New Jersey cranberry pulp [7] and termed Helminthosporium inaequale. [6] Later, during Karl Boedijin's taxonomic organization and grouping of this genus, he recognized a similarity between them and H. inaequale. [6] He recognized a morphological similarity between its conidia and those of the lunata group within Curvularia, and so renamed it C. inaequalis. [6] Recognition of the three-septate curved conidia motivated the introduction of the now popularized name. [6]

Growth and morphology

The species' spore producing cells take on a model of sympodial growth. [6] Conidia grow through successive apices which end in a terminal prospore. [6] Growth can be affected by static magnetic fields with field flux densities. [8] Under these conditions, the number of conidia are able to increase by a minimum of 68 percent. [8]

Curvularia inaequalis is a filamentous fungus, with 3 to 12 densely packed filaments. [7] The species is mostly brown in appearance, with pale brown end cells. [2] [7] Conidia themselves, consist of 3-5 cells with thick cell walls and a larger central cell. [7] [2] The diameter of the conidia ranges from 10 to 30 micrometers and have a slight leading curvature. [9] [10] Overall the appearance of the species is described as looking "cottony" with clear branching cells. [2] [7]

The species can be difficult to identify due to its similar appearance to both C. and geniculate . [2] Instead, sequencing of nuclear rRNA internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) can be done to achieve accurate identification. [2]

Physiology

The optimal growth temperature for the species is 30°C. [7] It is able to produce a multitude of chemical products with enzymatic properties. One enzyme produced is chloroperoxidase, which can catalyze halogenation reactions. [11] Chloroperoxidase secreted from C. inaequalis contains vanadium active site. [5] The presence of the vanadium substrate vanadate is essential for the function of chloroperoxidase. [12] The compound glucose however, acts as an inhibitor for both enzyme function and production. [13] In its active form, the enzyme is able to then produce hypochlorous acid, a strong oxidizing agent. [5] It has been theorized that C. inaequalis utilizes chloroperoxidase and hypochlorous acid in combination to penetrate the host's cell wall. [5]

Other significant compounds produced include of B-galactosidase, 4-hydroxyradianthin and Curvularone A. The species is able to produce large amounts of β-galactosidase, which can hydrolyze lactose in acid whey. [9] C. inaequalis also contains 4-hydroxyradianthin and Curvularone A compounds which have been identified as potential anti-tumor agents. [14]

Pathology and toxicology

Plant pathology and toxicology

Curvularia inaequalis is known to cause leaf spot, also known as Leaf Blight. [10] [15] Symptoms of infection by C. inaequalis include the combination of oval shaped dark brown patches and leaf tip dieback. [10] The infection slowly spreads causes necrosis until it has covered the entirety of the leaf. [10] It results in the thinning of grass vegetation such as Zoysia-, Bent-, Bermuda- and Buffalo- grasses. [10] [15] Blighting is believed to be caused by two C. inaequalis mycotoxins, Pyrenocines A and B. [15] Pyrenocines A is the more potent of the two, stunting growth and causing necrosis in vegetation. [15] Both cause leaf tip die back in turf grass and leaf leakage of electrolytes in Bermuda grass. [15]

Human pathology

Curvularia inaequalis is typically a rare human pathogen. [2] There are however, recorded medical cases that mention infection by the species. One such case is of an Eosinophilic fungal rhinosinusitis in an immunocompromised male. [16] Endoscopic sinus surgery was required to remove a large polyposis. [16] C. inaequalis was found to have grown favorably in the eosinophilic mucus. [16] Oral itraconazole and other corticosteroids successfully were administered to prevent reinfection. [16] Another case of C. inaequalis causing disease includes peritonitis in an elderly patient. [2]

It is suggested that contraction of the fungus occurs due to contact with soils. [2] Furthermore, a case of recorded aerosolized C. inaequalis in one Canadian home supports airborne movement of spores as an important mode of transfer. [2] While many cases of infection due to soil contact with the genus Curvularia, connection with the specific species has not yet been confirmed. [2] Further studies are required to determine its human pathogen potential.

Related Research Articles

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<i>Cochliobolus carbonum</i> Species of fungus

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Cochliobolus lunatus is a fungal plant pathogen that can cause disease in humans and other animals. The anamorph of this fungus is known as Curvularia lunata, while C. lunatus denotes the teleomorph or sexual stage. They are, however, the same biological entity. C. lunatus is the most commonly reported species in clinical cases of reported Cochliobolus infection.

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References

  1. ↑ Ayoubi, Najmeh; Soleimani, Mohammad Javad; Zare, Rasoul; Zafari, Doustmorad (1 August 2017). "First report of Curvularia inaequalis and C. spicifera causing leaf blight and fruit rot of strawberry in Iran". Nova Hedwigia . 105 (1): 75–85. doi:10.1127/nova_hedwigia/2017/0402.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pimentel, J. D.; Mahadevan, K.; Woodgyer, A.; Sigler, L.; Gibas, C.; Harris, O. C.; Lupino, M.; Athan, E. (4 August 2005). "Peritonitis Due to Curvularia inaequalis in an Elderly Patient Undergoing Peritoneal Dialysis and a Review of Six Cases of Peritonitis Associated with Other Curvularia species". Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 43 (8): 4288–4292. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.8.4288-4292.2005 . PMC   1233934 . PMID   16082004.
  3. ↑ Sivanesan, A. (1987). Graminicolous species of Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, Exserohilum and their teleomorphs. England: CABI (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International). ISBN   0851985874.
  4. ↑ Moubasher, A.H.; Zeinab, Soliman; Abdel-Sater, M.A. (2018). "Contribution to the mycobiota of Egypt: 25 new records and interesting fungal taxa from citrus and grapevine plantations". Journal of Basic & Applied Mycology (Egypt)[ unreliable source? ]. 9: 43.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Messerschmidt, A.; Wever, R. (9 January 1996). "X-ray structure of a vanadium-containing enzyme: chloroperoxidase from the fungus Curvularia inaequalis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 93 (1): 392–396. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93..392M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.1.392 . PMC   40244 . PMID   8552646.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kendrick, W. B.; Cole, G. T. (October 1968). "Conidium ontogeny in hyphomycetes. The sympodulae of Beauveria and Curvularia". Canadian Journal of Botany . 46 (10): 1297–1301. doi:10.1139/b68-172.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Shear, Cornelius Lott; Stevens, Neil Everett; Bain, Henry F. (1931). Fungous diseases of the cultivated cranberry. Champaign, Illinois, US: United States Department of Agriculture. pp. 1–58.
  8. 1 2 Nagy, P.; Fischl, G. (May 2004). "Effect of static magnetic field on growth and sporulation of some plant pathogenic fungi". Bioelectromagnetics . 25 (4): 316–318. doi:10.1002/bem.20015. PMID   15114642. S2CID   30230777.
  9. 1 2 Laurila, Heikki O.; Nevalainen, Helena; Mikinen, Veijo (February 1985). "Production of protoplasts from the fungi Curvularia inaequalis and Trichoderma reesei". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology . 21 (3–4): 210–212. doi:10.1007/BF00295124. S2CID   36574244.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Amaradasa, B. S.; Amundsen, K. (February 2014). "First Report of Curvularia inaequalis and Bipolaris spicifera Causing Leaf Blight of Buffalograss in Nebraska". Plant Disease . American Phytopathological Society (APS). 98 (2): 279. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-05-13-0487-PDN . PMID   30708754.
  11. ↑ Lesk, Arthur (2012). Introduction to genomics (2nd ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (OUP). p. 339. ISBN   978-0199564354.
  12. ↑ van Schijndel, Johannes W.P.M.; Vollenbroek, Esther G.M.; Wever, Ron (February 1993). "The chloroperoxidase from the fungus Curvularia inaequalis; a novel vanadium enzyme". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Protein Structure and Molecular Enzymology . 1161 (2): 249–256. doi:10.1016/0167-4838(93)90221-C. PMID   8381670.
  13. ↑ Barnett, Philip; Kruitbosch, Danny L; Hemrika, Wieger; Dekker, Henk L; Wever, Ron (May 1997). "The regulation of the vanadium chloroperoxidase from Curvularia inaequalis". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression . 1352 (1): 73–84. doi:10.1016/S0167-4781(96)00238-2. PMID   9177485.
  14. ↑ Pang, Yan-Wei; Zhang, Ling-Jian; Fang, Jia-Shuang; Liu, Qian-Feng; Zhang, Hui; Xiang, Wen-Sheng; Wang, Ji-Dong; Wang, Xiang-Jing (23 January 2013). "Two new antitumor constituents from a soil fungus Curvularia inaequalis (strain HS-FG-257)". The Journal of Antibiotics. 66 (5): 287–289. doi:10.1038/ja.2012.128. PMID   23340662. S2CID   32532037.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 This review... Lopez, Rosa; LLorca, Luis (2017). Perspectives in Sustainable Nematode Management Through Pochonia chlamydosporia Applications for Root and Rhizosphere Health. Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection (1 ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG. pp. xxv+411. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59224-4. ISBN   978-3-319-59224-4. LCCN   2017947835. S2CID   28384575. ISBN   978-3-319-59222-0.: 154–155  ...cites this study: Kim, Jin-Cheol; Choi, Gyung Ja; Kim, Heung Tae; Kim, Hyun-Ju; Cho, Kwang Yun (June 2000). "Pathogenicity and Pyrenocine Production of Curvularia inaequalis Isolated from Zoysia Grass". Plant Disease . American Phytopathological Society (APS). 84 (6): 684–688. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.6.684 . PMID   30841112.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Posteraro, B.; Posteraro, E.; Sorda, M.; Torelli, R.; De Corso, E. (2010). "Eosinophilic fungal rhinosinusitis due to the unusual pathogen Curvularia inaequalis". Mycoses . 53 (1): 84–88. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01671.x . PMID   19207840.
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