Dolichovespula saxonica

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Dolichovespula saxonica
Dolichovespula saxonica-pjt1.jpg
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Vespidae
Genus: Dolichovespula
Species:
D. saxonica
Binomial name
Dolichovespula saxonica
(Fabricius, 1793)
Synonyms
  • Dolichovespula kamtschatkensisEck, 1983
  • Dolichovespula nigrescensEck, 1983
  • Dolichovespula nipponicaYamane, 1975
  • Vespa bavaricaSchrank, 1802
  • Vespa tridensSchenck, 1853
  • Vespula monticolaBirula, 1930

Dolichovespula saxonica, also known as the Saxon wasp, is a common social wasp found in the Palearctic region, specifically in large parts of Europe and in northern and central Asia. [1] Although originally from continental Europe, D. saxonica has since colonised Britain, mainly in the south and east, [2] but has been recorded as far north as East Lothian, Scotland. Most of their nests are above ground in trees and bushes, but they can also be found in buildings. Due to the proliferation of nests in urban areas and near residential homes, D. saxonica can be a pest for people. As a result, many human interventions are in place to remove Saxon nests. D. saxonica has been found to use chemical signaling in a lot of behaviours, such as alarm calls, fertility cues, and chemical trails.

Contents

D. saxonica Dolichovespula saxonica-a.jpg
D. saxonica

Taxonomy and phylogenetics

The Saxon wasp is part of the family Vespidae, a large family of varied wasp species. Within the Vespidae is the genus Dolichovespula , which is derived from the Greek word “dolikhos,” meaning “long.” This describes the characteristic long face found within the genus, as opposed to the short and round faces found in the genus Vespula. Dolichovespula contains 18 species, including D. saxonica, and most are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. [1] Dolichovespula is closely related to Vespula , and species from both genera constitute the yellowjackets. Many of the species within Dolichovespula choose aerial nest sites, though most illustrate flexibility in nest site locations. [1] This differs from the genus Vespula, whose members often make subterranean nests. Dolichovespula species typically have mature colonies of about a thousand cells with about two thousand adults and a colony cycle that lasts three to five months. [1]

Description and identification

D. saxonica is similar to its yellowjacket relatives with the black and yellow stripes on its body. However, the Saxon wasp is larger than most of its relatives. [1] The Saxon queens are largest with a body length ranging from 15–19 mm (.59–.75 in), while the males range from 13–15 mm (.51–.59 in) and the workers from 11–15 mm (.43–.59 in). [3] The male body consists of a copulatory casing at the end of their gaster and seven gastral tergites – hardened plates, or sclerites that are divided on the dorsal side of the body – and sternites, which are sclerites on the ventral side of the thorax. [4] On the other hand, the female has six gastral tergites and sternites and a sting at the end of their gaster. [4]

Male in East Lothian Dolichovespula saxonica - male.jpg
Male in East Lothian

[5]

D. saxonica is an aerial nester, meaning that the wasps build their nests above ground, often in trees, shrubs, or buildings. The nests of D. saxonica are ball-shaped and can be roughly 250 mm (9.8 in), which is small relative to other wasp nests. [4] Nest construction is done quickly, allowing the nest population to increase rapidly. On average, nests contain three to five combs, while a large nest can contain up to five. [4] The Saxon wasps build their nests from rotting wood, using the fibres from the wood to form a grey coloured nest that can contain yellow lines or patches on the exterior. [4] The external side of the nest is smooth and does not have any ventilation holes. Instead, there is a single opening at the bottom where wasps can enter and exit and where waste can leave the nest. [4]

Distribution and habitat

The Saxon wasp is commonly found in most of Europe and in northern and central Asia. Areas where the species can be commonly found include the United Kingdom (Southern only), the Czech Republic, northern France, the Netherlands and most recently the east of Ireland in 2020. [6] Within these areas, the nests of D. saxonica can be found hanging freely in various forest types, the open countryside, and wooded hills. [7] Since these wasps are aerial nesters, the nests are often hanging on tree branches or shrubs, a couple meters off the ground. [1] Urban areas are also suitable habitats for D. saxonica. As a result, their nests have been found under roofs, porches, park benches, and on the sides of buildings. Despite this flexibility in nesting sites, rarely are subterranean nests found. [1]

Colony cycle

Similar to other wasp species, colonies of D. saxonica build up during the summer time and decline during the winter. Queens are the only ones capable of surviving the winter due to their form of hibernation called overwintering, which occurs within sheds, hollow trees, or other similar cavities. [1] The queens that do survive the winter find a new colony in the springtime, around April to early May. Their job is to find a good nesting location and rear the first set of workers. By early June, the first set of workers emerges, begins to expand the nest, and builds large-cells for potential gynes. [1] In early July, the new queens emerge and mate, leading to the end of the colony around mid-August. At the peak of the cycle, there may be a few thousand wasps. This entire cycle is roughly 3 to 4 months long, though the exact timing of events is heavily dependent on weather. [1] When the temperature drops and winter arrives, the cycle begins again.

Behaviour

Chemical trails for next orientation

The nests of D. saxonica are constructed with only one opening to allow for wasps, resources, and waste to enter and exit the nest. This opening has a thick rim and is located at the bottom of the round-shaped nest. [1] When foragers leave the nest in search for food, individuals do not fly in an artificial tunnel system to orient themselves like other wasp species. Rather, D. saxonica foragers utilize chemicals to create a nest odor to orient themselves while flying back to the aerial nest. [1] This odor can come from the materials used in the nest envelope or the other structural components of the nest. D. saxonica foragers can also walk beneath the nest to create a chemical trail to orient themselves within the nest's proximity, though this method is not used often since they do not usually walk while in the vicinity of the nest. [8]

Thermal regulation

Ideally, D. saxonica nests are stable at approximately 84 °F (29 °C). [9] However, the months of May through August in Europe and Asia deviate from this comfortable temperature. One way D. saxonica colonies have adapted to this is by shortening or shifting colony cycles during ideal temperatures. A more realistic way to avoid overheating or freezing is to regulate nest temperature. D. saxonica wasps possess thermosensitive receptors on their cuticles, which sense the surrounding temperature. [9] In the rare cases of nests that are naturally sheltered, such as with subterranean nests or nests in hollow trees, a few additional envelopes around the nest can help keep temperatures stable. [9] In the majority of cases, where aerial nests are involved, there must be many more envelopes surrounding the nest, since they are exposed to natural elements such as strong winds and rain. [9] This can become hazardous to the nest because additional envelopes take up a majority of the volume of the nest and in order to expand the nest, the inner envelopes must first be broken down and new envelopes built on the exterior surface. [9] Due to the potential dangers of temperature regulation, it becomes advantageous for colonies to locate their nests in urban areas, where the climate is warmer and they are sheltered from the weather.

Communication

Alarm pheromone

There are multiple forms of communication displayed in D. saxonica colonies. One of these forms of is an alarm pheromone produced in the wasps' venom glands. [10] For D. saxonica, the alarm behaviour is believed to ensue in response to sprayed venom or when a wasp stings. [10] This type of alarm is seen in other vespines and acts to bring workers together to increase aggressive and fighting behaviours. [10] This is advantageous to the colony because it allows workers to prevent harm to the nest by attacking a predator collectively. Alarm calls typically only last for a short amount of time, allowing the colony to return to their normal duties in a timely manner. [10]

Fertility cues

Another form of communication found in D. saxonica regards fertility. As with other social insects, there is a reproductive division of labour in colonies where the queens reproduce and the workers build cells and raise the queen's offspring. However, workers possess their own ovaries and thus are able to produce unfertilised male eggs, creating a conflict. [11] To ensure that the queen continues to hold “reproductive dominance,” she signals her fertility to the rest of the colony, and the workers act to increase their genetic success by allowing the queen to reproduce in the beginning of the colony cycle. [11] The queen's signal is a chemical cue from pheromones that is believed to decrease as the colony matures, thus allowing more workers to reproduce. [11] In addition, the fertility of all D. saxonica individuals – workers, males, and queens – can be determined by their cuticular hydrocarbon cues. [11] Specific cues increase with queen ovary development and decrease with colony maturity and worker reproduction, which supports the timeline of pheromone signal strength from queens. [11]

Kin selection

Worker-queen conflict

Species within the genus Dolichovespula have queens who can mate only once or mate multiply. [3] This small difference can lead to differences in kinship, which is vital in social insects such as D. saxonica. This difference in kinship arises because workers are capable of producing unfertilised, male eggs. [11] Due to this ability, if a queen mates only once, workers are more closely related to the male offspring of other workers than of the queen. [3] Therefore, when a queen only mates once, workers should choose to help rear the offspring of other workers to increase their genetic success. If a queen mates more than once, it is in the worker's best interest to rear the queen's sons. To remedy this worker queen conflict, D. saxonica demonstrates facultative worker policing, where workers inhibit other workers from reproducing – through acts like eating workers’ eggs – so that the queen remains reproductively dominant. [12] This, however, is only in the workers’ best interest if the queen mate multiplied. Worker policing and worker reproduction are also correlated with colony development. Early in the colony cycle, worker policing is high, resulting in low worker reproduction. [12] Once the colony matures, worker policing declines and successful worker reproduction increases. [12] This trend is due to the fact that worker reproduction early on in the colony cycle would deter work force growth and would ultimately hinder worker fitness. [12]

Interaction with other species

Parasites within the genus

Dolichovespula adulterina is a common social parasite. It is a parasite of Dolichovespula arenaria and Dolichovespula alpicola in the Nearctic region, which covers North America, Greenland, and the highlands of Mexico. D. adulterina is also a parasite of D. saxonica and Dolichovespula norwegica of the Palearctic region, which includes Europe, northern and central Asia, and northern Africa. [1] In the case of D. saxonica, the D. adulterina queen usually usurps the nest around the time that the host's first set of workers emerge in early June. [1] Since only one set of the host's offspring has emerged, if the D. adulterina queen takes over the host nest at the beginning of the colony cycle, there will be fewer total combs as well as fewer individuals from the host species. [7] The later in the colony cycle, the more likely it will be that the host species’ workers and males will be present. [7] After usurping, the D. adulterina queen will cohabit the nest with the D. saxonica queen for about 10 days, which is when the D. adulterina queen kills the host queen. [1] Then, the D. adulterina queen lays her eggs around the beginning of July, which the host's workers look after. [1] The males will then emerge at the end of July, while the gynes will emerge at the beginning of August until the colony declines in the middle of the month. [1] Thus, the colony cycle for the parasitic yellowjacket is about a month shorter than the host's and with fewer offspring. [1] There might also be fewer offspring because the parasitic queen will often die shortly after laying her eggs in July or earlier if she is injured during conflicts with the host's workers.

Parasites outside the genus

The ichneumonid wasp Sphecophaga vesparum is an important and common parasitoid of a few vespid wasps. [13] In the past, S. vesparum wasps have been used to combat the invasive species' populations of Vespula germanica and Vespula vulgaris in places like New Zealand. [13] This species has also been observed to be a parasite of D. saxonica. The degree of destruction to D. saxonica nests has been seen as moderate, relative to other parasitic species and is dependent on timing. [13] Similar to D. adulterina invasions, the earlier the host's nest is infected, the more effective the infection. [13] Rather than usurping the nest, however, S. vesparum females enter the host's nest and lay their eggs on top of the host's larvae or pupae. [14] This allows the parasitic larvae to attack and feed on the host's larvae, and then spin a cocoon. [14] Despite the fact that S. vesparum is a common parasite of D. saxonica, S. vesparum does not rapidly grow in a host's nest; only a few dozen S. vesparum individuals are typically found within a nest of hundreds of cells. [7]

Disease

The one opening in D. saxonica nests is found at the bottom of the spherically-shaped nest. This single opening serves as the entrance, exit, and waste removal site for the Saxon wasps. [1] As a result, when waste and debris leave the nest, they simply fall out of the opening and onto the floor, where it collects. [3] This waste collection site provides many resources, and unsurprisingly, many pathogens are found here, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , and Klebsiella oxytoca . [13] Fungi are also found, including Aspergillus niger and Candida krusei . [13] Although these pathogens and fungi utilize the wasp's detritus, it becomes a problem for people as they can lead to infection, respiratory disease, and allergies. [3] The Saxon wasp nests are found to have less bacteria and fungi when located in natural places as opposed to urban ones. This is thought to be due to workers actively cleaning the combs and cells of such microorganisms by using their venom. [3]

Human importance

Benefits

The Saxon wasp plays a vital role in the ecosystem. Adult Saxon wasps can feed on a variety of things, including the nectar of many plants. Therefore, the species can benefit agriculture when they collect the nectar by unknowingly pollinating many plants. For example, queens pollinate bilberry flowers in the spring, while workers and males pollinate wild angelica, wild parsnip, and hogweed blossom flowers towards the end of summer. [15] Saxon wasps can also decrease populations of insects, such as flies, since the larvae are fed on them. Perhaps more importantly, insects like the Saxon wasp can transport and recycle organic and inorganic matter, such as cadmium, iron, lead, and zinc. [15] This is especially important due to the increasing amounts of environmental pollution due to chemical and industrial industries.

Stings and other dangers

D. saxonica may cause a disturbance to people due to the close proximity of their nests. However, they do not become violent or harmful unless their nest is disrupted or threatened. If an individual senses danger, it can emit an alarm pheromone to its colony, which attracts others and stimulates aggressiveness and flight behaviour. [10] This not only causes an individual to sting any intruders, but it also causes others to do the same. Fortunately, the stings are not especially painful compared to e.g. those of the German Wasp or Common Wasp, [16] and its venom does not activate an allergic reaction very often. [10]

Another danger to humans caused by the Saxon wasp is the potential for disease. As stated above, the collected waste below a nest may cause foul stains on ceilings and walls. Some examples of the potential pathogens include Escherichia coli, which is the pathogen most noted in improperly prepared food; Klebsiella oxytoca, which can cause urinary tract infections; Aspergillus niger, which creates aflatoxins that can lead to respiratory disease and candidiasis; and Candida krusei, which can cause allergies. [13] As a result, although the Saxon wasps themselves may not be dangerous, the pathogens they attract can be. Luckily, nests can be easily spotted because they are usually built in easily visible locations. [13]

Colonies in cities

Although Saxon nests are almost exclusively found above ground, they are not exclusively found in one type of environment. Saxon colonies are found in nature, such as in forests and wooded hills, but also in urban areas. In fact, urban areas may provide a better environment for colonies to succeed in than natural ones. It has been observed that when colonies are found in urban areas, the colonies are larger in size. [13] This is especially surprising since many colonies are destroyed through human intervention. [13] One of the benefits of nest building in urban environments is the abundance of varied nesting sites, such as under rafters and roofs, in attics, and on the sides of buildings. [1] Not only are these sites more physically stable than a tree branch, but they also provide better climate conditions. Many urban nesting sites are sheltered, resulting in warmer conditions that lack vulnerability to rain and wind. [13] Since Saxon nests typically hang off of a branch, they are exposed to wind, which can knock nests off their branch and damage the nest. In addition, since nests are made out of weathered wood, heavy rain can damage the structure and high humidity can lead to the growth of microorganisms, which can also destroy the structure of the nest and the larvae and pupae inside of it. [13] As a result, urban colonies are better protected from natural elements. Urban colonies also have the advantage of larger food resources.

Related Research Articles

<i>Dolichovespula maculata</i> Species of wasp

Dolichovespula maculata is a species of wasp in the genus Dolichovespula and a member of the eusocial, cosmopolitan family Vespidae. It is known by many colloquial names, primarily bald-faced hornet, but also including bald-faced aerial yellowjacket, bald-faced wasp, bald hornet, white-faced hornet, blackjacket, white-tailed hornet, spruce wasp, and bull wasp. Technically a species of yellowjacket wasp, it is not one of the true hornets, which are in the genus Vespa. Colonies contain 400 to 700 workers, the largest recorded colony size in its genus, Dolichovespula. It builds a characteristic large hanging paper nest up to 58 cm (23 in) in length. Workers aggressively defend their nest by repeatedly stinging invaders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Median wasp</span> Species of wasp

The median wasp is a species of social wasp of the family Vespidae found throughout Europe and Asia. It builds aerial paper nests often in shrubs or trees, and occasionally under the eaves of buildings. It is most common to see this wasp between May and October during its 3.3 month colony cycle. Behaviours of this wasp include nest defense, curling which is believed to function in brood incubation, and gastral vibration which is involved in larval feeding. The median wasp has a halplodiploid sex determination system that results in a high level of relatedness within the colony. This species is not usually aggressive but will sting if they feel their nest is threatened. Most foraging in the nest is done by the workers once the first ones reach adulthood. These workers forage for insects, nectar, and wood for nest construction in temperatures as low as 7 °C (45 °F). The median wasp is known to be occasionally affected by the fungus Cordyceps sphecocephala and the Cricket paralysis virus.

<i>Vespula germanica</i> Species of wasp

Vespula germanica, the European wasp, German wasp, or German yellowjacket, is a species of wasp found in much of the Northern Hemisphere, native to Europe, Northern Africa, and temperate Asia. It has spread and become well-established in many other places, including North America, South America, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand. German wasps are part of the family Vespidae and are sometimes mistakenly referred to as paper wasps because they build grey paper nests, although strictly speaking, paper wasps are part of the subfamily Polistinae. In North America, they are also known as yellowjackets.

<i>Vespula vulgaris</i> Species of insect

Vespula vulgaris, known as the Common wasp, is a species found in regions that include the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, India, China, New Zealand and Australia. It is sometimes known in English as the European wasp, but the same name is used for the species Vespula germanica or German wasp. In 2010, the ostensible Vespula vulgaris wasps in North America were found to be a different species, Vespula alascensis.

<i>Dolichovespula</i> Genus of wasps

Dolichovespula is a small genus of social wasps distributed widely throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The yellow and black members of the genus are known by the common name yellowjackets in North America, such as Dolichovespula norwegica, along with members of their sister genus Vespula. In a study on the nesting biology of Dolichovespula, a colony of D. maculata with 771 workers was reported as having the largest recorded population count.

<i>Vespula pensylvanica</i> Species of wasp

Vespula pensylvanica, the western yellowjacket, is a Nearctic species of wasp in the genus Vespula. It is native to regions of North America, largely in areas with northern temperate climates. Its reproductive behavior is constrained by cold weather, which successfully reduces the number of western yellowjackets in cold months. However, in the absence of cold weather, this wasp's population can explode. The western yellowjacket has become particularly invasive in the Hawaiian Islands, resulting in their label as a major pest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern yellowjacket</span> Species of insect

The eastern yellow jacket or eastern yellowjacket is a wasp found in eastern North America. Although most of their nests are subterranean, they are often considered a pest due to their nesting in recreational areas and buildings. This yellow jacket is a social insect, living in colonies of hundreds to thousands of individuals. Along with their subfamily, Vespinae, this species demonstrates supportive parental care for offspring, separation of reproductive and sterile castes, and overlapping generations. They aggressively defend their hives from threats and are known to inflict painful stings.

<i>Dolichovespula norwegica</i> Species of wasp

The Norwegian wasp is a species of eusocial wasp. It is common in Scandinavia and can also be found in Scotland and other areas in Britain and Ireland. Often known for being a tree wasp, it nests in low branches and bushes and feeds on insects. It also obtains nectar from blueberry and snowberry flowers. Although D. norwegica is rarely considered a pest in the past, a few cases of pest problems relating to them have been reported. The species is not endangered.

<i>Dolichovespula sylvestris</i> Species of wasp

The tree wasp is a species of eusocial wasp in the family Vespidae, found in the temperate regions of Eurasia, particularly in western Europe. Despite being called the tree wasp, it builds both aerial and underground paper nests, and can be found in rural and urban habitats. D. sylvestris is a medium-sized wasp that has yellow and black stripes and a black dot in the center of its clypeus. It is most common to see this wasp between May and September during its 3.5 month colony cycle.

<i>Dolichovespula adulterina</i> Species of wasp

Dolichovespula adulterina is a species of parasitic social wasp found in the Palearctic region. D. adulterina feeds on a variety of foods, including insects, spiders, arthropods, meat, molluscs, fruit, nectar, and larval secretions. D. adulterina was formerly considered to be synonymous with D. arctica from the Holarctic region, but more recent research indicates that D. arctica is a separate species.

<i>Vespula rufa</i> Species of wasp

Vespula rufa, commonly known as the red wasp, is a social wasp species belonging to the genus Vespula. It is found in northern and central Europe, parts of Asia, and northern parts of North America. Vespula rufa is characterised by red-brown markings and body segmentation, with the appearance varying amongst the different roles of individuals in the species. These wasps build small nests in dry banks underground that are not far below the surface. The colony cycle begins in the fall. Vespula rufa feed on live insects. One interesting fact about Vespula rufa is that the queen policing occurs in the species, and that worker policing occurs at much lower rates than other species in the genus Vespula. There are predators and parasites of the species. The species goes through a series of events before leaving the nest.

<i>Vespula austriaca</i> Species of wasp

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<i>Vespula acadica</i> Species of wasp

Vespula acadica, also known as the Forest Yellowjacket, is a North American species of eusocial wasp which is part of the "rufa" group within the genus Vespula. It is a black and yellow wasp that is found in arboreal areas and builds its nests most often in decaying vegetation like logs, but has occasionally been found to build aerial nests. Due to its preference for forests V. acadica does not normally come into contact with humans; however, when colonies are disturbed, workers of this yellowjacket may be quite aggressive and persistent and sting repeatedly.

<i>Vespula squamosa</i> Species of wasp

Vespula squamosa, the southern yellowjacket, is a social wasp. This species can be identified by its distinctive black and yellow patterning and orange queen. These yellowjackets are typically found in eastern North America, and its territory extends as far south as Central America. Within these territories, they create enormous, multiple-comb nests. The colonies may be either annual or perennial depending on the climate, and in many perennial nests, polygyny takes place. In addition, this species uses pheromones both as a sexual attractant and an alarm signal. This species feeds on insects and animal carcasses; it does not produce honey. V. squamosa, a social insect, has developed a parasitic relationship with the species V. vidua and V. maculifrons. Due to their painful, venomous stings, the species is considered a pest.

<i>Dolichovespula arenaria</i> Species of wasp

Dolichovespula arenaria, also known as the common aerial yellowjacket, sandhills hornet, and common yellow hornet, is a species of wasp within the genus Dolichovespula widely distributed in the North American continent.

<i>Polybia occidentalis</i> Species of wasp

Polybia occidentalis, commonly known as camoati, is a swarm-founding advanced eusocial wasp. Swarm-founding means that a swarm of these wasps find a nesting site and build the nest together. This species can be found in Central and South America. P. occidentalis preys on nectar, insects, and carbohydrate sources, while birds and ants prey on and parasitize them. P. occidentalis workers bite each other to communicate the time to start working.

<i>Belonogaster petiolata</i> Species of wasp

Belonogaster petiolata is a species of primitively eusocial wasp that dwells in southern Africa, in temperate or subhumid climate zones. This wasp species has a strong presence in South Africa and has also been seen in northern Johannesburg. Many colonies can be found in caves. The Sterkfontein Caves in South Africa, for example, contain large populations of B. petiolata.

<i>Vespula atropilosa</i> Species of wasp

Vespula atropilosa, also known as the prairie yellowjacket, is a black and yellow social wasp that forms annual colonies. Vespula atropilosa was formerly a member of the Vespa family. Males have either xanthic (yellow) or melanic (black) abdominal coloring. The prairie yellowjacket can be found in the Western and Midwestern United States as well as parts of southern Canada. It builds its nests underground and prefers large open areas such as pastures and golf courses. Vespula atropilosa colonies are founded by a queen in the spring and grow most during mid-summer. It preys on other insects such as flies and grasshoppers but is not a scavenger like other wasps. Queens mate with multiple males, and males will fight each other for matings. V. atropilosa is a social wasp that practices altruism. Prairie yellowjackets are not considered pests but are commonly found in backyards in the Pacific Northwest. This species derives its common name from the prairies and grasslands where it can be found.

<i>Ropalidia romandi</i> Species of wasp

Ropalidia romandi, also known as the yellow brown paper wasp or the yellow paper wasp. is a species of paper wasp found in Northern and Eastern Australia. R. romandi is a swarm-founding wasp, and manages perennial nests. Its nests are known as 'paper bag nests' and have different architectural structures, depending on the substrates from which they are built. The specific name honors Gustave, baron de Romand, a prominent French political figure and amateur entomologist.

<i>Vespula infernalis</i> Species of wasp

Vespula infernalis is an obligate parasitic wasp, parasitizing the nests of other species in the genus Vespula. Its common host species is V. acadica in North America. It is sometimes called the cuckoo yellowjacket wasp due to its inquiline lifestyle. They differ from other parasitic wasps in their intensely aggressive behaviour during invasion and occupation of the host colony. Several morphological adaptations such as bigger body parts and more curved sting shafts are observed in these wasps to aid their aggressive parasitic behaviour. Once they occupy a host's nest, V. infernalis are known to engage in mauling and chasing of host workers and forced trophallaxis. Female wasps will also force host workers to feed and take care of their brood.

References

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  5. ↑ "Dolichovespula saxonica/norvegica". 2010-07-23.
  6. ↑ Eileen Dillane, Rachel Hayden, Aidan O'Hanlon, Fidelma Butler, Simon Harrison (2022). "The first recorded occurrence of the Asian hornet (Vespa velutina) in Ireland, genetic evidence for a continued single invasion across Europe". Journal of Hymenoptera Research (93): 131–138. doi: 10.3897/jhr.93.91209 . Retrieved 26 December 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. 1 2 3 4 Dvorak, Libor. "On the Nests of The Saxon Wasp (Dolichovespula Saxonica) in the Czech Republic (Hymenoptera; Vespidae)." (2007): n. pag. Academia.edu. Web. 11 Oct. 2014. <https://www.academia.edu/6751986/Dvorak_2007d_On_the_nests_of_The_Saxon_Wasp_Dolichovespula_saxonica_in_the_Czech_Republic_Hymenoptera_Vespidae_>.
  8. ↑ Steinmetz, I.; Schmolz, E. (2003). "Use of Terrestrial Chemical Trails for Nest Orientation in an Open Nesting Wasp, Dolichovespula Saxonica F.". Insectes Sociaux. 50 (3): 292–94. doi:10.1007/s00040-003-0673-5. S2CID   20171692.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Ishay, Jacob S.; Shimony, Tamar B.; Rosenzweig, Eyal; Avidor, Neta; Afek, Arnon B. (1982). "Temperature Dependence of the Electrical Resistivity of Social Wasp Cuticle: A Comparative Study". Biosystems. 15 (2): 133–40. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(82)90027-2. PMID   7104471.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maschwitz, U (1984). "Alarm Pheromone in the Long-cheeked Wasp Dolochovespula Saxonica. (Hym. Vespidae)". Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift. 31 (1–3): 33–34. doi:10.1002/mmnd.19840310111.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Van Zweden, Jelle S.; Bonckaert, Wim; Wenseleers, Tom; D'Ettorre, Patrizia (2013). "Queen Signaling in Social Wasps". Evolution. 68 (4): 976–86. doi:10.1111/evo.12314. PMID   24219699. S2CID   205123231.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Bonckaert, W.; Zweden, J. S. Van; D'Ettorre, P.; Billen, J.; Wenseleers, T. (2011). "Colony Stage and Not Facultative Policing Explains Pattern of Worker Reproduction in the Saxon Wasp". Molecular Ecology. 20 (16): 3455–468. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05200.x. PMID   21762433. S2CID   18426942.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Nadolski, Jerzy (2013). "Factors Restricting the Abundance of Wasp Colonies of the European Hornet Vespa Crabro and the Saxon Wasp Dolichovespula Saxonica (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) in an Urban Area in Poland". Entomologica Fennica. 24 (4): 204–15. doi: 10.33338/ef.9383 .
  14. 1 2 Biggs, J. R.; Harris, R. J.; Read, P. E. C. (1996). "Invasion Success of the Wasp Parasitoid Sphecophaga Vesparum Vesparum (Curtis) in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 23 (1): 1–9. doi: 10.1080/03014223.1996.9518060 .
  15. 1 2 Kowalczyk, Jan K.; Watala, Cezary (1989). "Content of Some Heavy Metal Ions in Various Developmental Stages of the Social Wasp,Dolichovespula Saxonica (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae)". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 43 (3): 415–20. doi:10.1007/BF01701877. PMID   2790249. S2CID   30471671.
  16. ↑ Zahradnik, Jiri (1998). A Field Guide in Colour to Bees and Wasps. Leicester: Blitz Editions. pp. 140–142. ISBN   1-85605-441-1.
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