| Isozoanthus sulcatus | |
|---|---|
 | |
| In Lough Hyne, Co. Cork, Ireland. | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Cnidaria |
| Class: | Anthozoa |
| Order: | Zoantharia |
| Family: | Parazoanthidae |
| Genus: | Isozoanthus |
| Species: | I. sulcatus |
| Binomial name | |
| Isozoanthus sulcatus | |
| Synonyms | |
| |
Isozoanthus sulcatus is a species of zoanthid in the family Parazoanthidae. [2]
Isozoanthus sulcatus is a small colonial, anemone-like anthozoan found in European waters. [3] The polyps grow to 2 mm in diameter and are found in patches which are typically about 50 mm across. The body is tall and thin with a tentacle-ringed mouth. The colour is brown and the species is sometimes called "ginger tinies". [4] It typically produces colonies of around 50 or more individuals with concentrations from 3.7 to 17/cm^2. Individual polyps can have 16-30 tentacles each and are characterized by their brown color, owing to the presence of symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthellae living inside of them. This species is also unique due to its banded coenenchyme that links individuals together. They are most often between 2-3 mm in diameter and can be from 5-10 mm in height.
This species is found in the NE Atlantic Ocean, on south-western coasts of England and Wales and the southern, western and northern coasts of Ireland. Isozoanthus sulcatus is also commonly found in temperate waters on the western coast of France, but can be found as far east as the southwestern coast of Norway. They live from the intertidal to about 42 m down in the sublittoral on horizontal silt-covered substrate, empty mollusc shells, and even in rocky intertidal pools as epibiota. [5] Because of their size and habits, they are found often through diving and dredging. [3] [5] [6]
Isozoanthus sulcatus is distinct from other species in its family Parazoanthidae. It is morphologically unique and in addition contains differences in the genetic sequences mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) and the nuclear internal transcribed spacer region (ITS rDNA), both genetic markers used to classify Parazoanthidae. These differences diverge strongly enough from other parazoanthids to provide evidence that it does not belong to Isozoanthus. Further research is needed to confirm this. [7]
This species produces small polyp individuals with a 2 rings of blunt tentacles surrounding their oral cavity. The secondary, or outer layer, has tentacles about 1 mm in length, while the primary, or inner are about 15-25% longer. Most polyps have the same number of tentacles in each ring, and individuals typically have between 20 and 24 total. Their bandlike coenenchyme links individuals together and has tiny grains of sand embedded in it. Their oral disk also has small grains embedded inside of it, leading to an appearance of silvery flecks on the ectoderm of the organism. Due to the presence of photosynthetic zooxanthellae, they have a brown coloration. [3]
Isozoanthus sulcatus uses its tentacles to collect small food particles from its environment and supplements this source of nutrients with symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthellae. It has a tendency to open its tentacles when exposed to light for longer than 5 minutes and it is theorized that this behavior is the organism trying to help its symbionts photosynthesize more readily. In addition, they contract their tentacles into their oral cavity when in a dark environment for a long period of time. Individual polyps will also close in response to harsh stimuli, such as being touched by a probing appendage, and nearby polyps will subsequently close in kind, radiating outward, due to the colonial nerve network that links them together. When exposed to semi-darkness at a temperature of 23°C for a period of 24h, polyps will expel a thick mucus that contains a large amount of zooxanthellae. [3]
Sp. sulcatus contains highly efficient photosynthetic symbionts that are able to produce more than enough of their host's daily respiratory carbon requirements. It holds the record for the highest (96%) translocation rate of carbon for algal-invertebrate symbiosis. It is speculated that it can satisfy metabolic carbon requirements with autotrophy under favorable irradiance regimes, and at 1.5 meters on sunny days, the algae within it can produce up to 181% of its daily respiratory carbon needs. At 9 meters on sunny days, the host's daily respiratory carbon requirements would be met, however they would not be met on cloudy days. [2] [8]
Considering the fact that most temperate anthozoa are found at depths of greater than 9 meters, it is suggested that heterotrophy can supply the organism with almost, if not a completely sufficient amount of carbon it needs in order to survive, not taking into account various other nutrients and trace elements needed by organisms to function. However, the experiments conducted measured only excess carbon produced by the zooxanthellae. The actual amount utilized by sulcatus may not reflect these value as the algae may store carbon for its own uses. [2] [8]
Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.
Anthozoa is a class of marine invertebrates which includes the sea anemones, stony corals and soft corals. Adult anthozoans are almost all attached to the seabed, while their larvae can disperse as part of the plankton. The basic unit of the adult is the polyp; this consists of a cylindrical column topped by a disc with a central mouth surrounded by tentacles. Sea anemones are mostly solitary, but the majority of corals are colonial, being formed by the budding of new polyps from an original, founding individual. Colonies are strengthened by calcium carbonate and other materials and take various massive, plate-like, bushy or leafy forms.
The aggregating anemone, or clonal anemone, is the most abundant species of sea anemone found on rocky, tide swept shores along the Pacific coast of North America. This cnidarian hosts endosymbiotic algae called zooxanthellae that contribute substantially to primary productivity in the intertidal zone. The aggregating anemone has become a model organism for the study of temperate cnidarian-algal symbioses.
Zoanthids are an order of cnidarians commonly found in coral reefs, the deep sea and many other marine environments around the world. These animals come in a variety of different colonizing formations and in numerous colors. They can be found as individual polyps, attached by a fleshy stolon or a mat that can be created from small pieces of sediment, sand and rock. The term "zoanthid" refers to all animals within this order Zoantharia, and should not be confused with "Zoanthus", which is one genus within Zoantharia.
Hexacorallia is a class of Anthozoa comprising approximately 4,300 species of aquatic organisms formed of polyps, generally with 6-fold symmetry. It includes all of the stony corals, most of which are colonial and reef-forming, as well as all sea anemones, and zoanthids, arranged within five extant orders. The hexacorallia are distinguished from another class of Anthozoa, Octocorallia, in having six or fewer axes of symmetry in their body structure; the tentacles are simple and unbranched and normally number more than eight. These organisms are formed of individual soft polyps which in some species live in colonies and can secrete a calcite skeleton. As with all Cnidarians, these organisms have a complex life cycle including a motile planktonic phase and a later characteristic sessile phase. Hexacorallia also include the significant extinct order of rugose corals.
Aiptasia is a genus of a symbiotic cnidarian belonging to the class Anthozoa. Aiptasia is a widely distributed genus of temperate and tropical sea anemones of benthic lifestyle typically found living on mangrove roots and hard substrates. These anemones, as well as many other cnidarian species, often contain symbiotic dinoflagellate unicellular algae of the genus Symbiodinium living inside nutritive cells. The symbionts provide food mainly in the form of lipids and sugars produced from photosynthesis to the host while the hosts provides inorganic nutrients and a constant and protective environment to the algae. Species of Aiptasia are relatively weedy anemones able to withstand a relatively wide range of salinities and other water quality conditions. In the case of A. pallida and A. pulchella, their hardiness coupled with their ability to reproduce very quickly and out-compete other species in culture gives these anemones the status of pest from the perspective of coral reef aquarium hobbyists. These very characteristics make them easy to grow in the laboratory and thus they are extensively used as model organisms for scientific study. In this respect, Aiptasia have contributed a significant amount of knowledge regarding cnidarian biology, especially human understanding of cnidarian-algal symbioses, a biological phenomenon crucial to the survival of corals and coral reef ecosystems. The dependence of coral reefs on the health of the symbiosis is dramatically illustrated by the devastating effects experienced by corals due to the loss of algal symbionts in response to environmental stress, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching.
Corynactis californica is a brightly colored colonial anthozoan corallimorph. Unlike the Atlantic true sea anemone, Actinia fragacea, that bears the same common name, strawberry anemone, this species is a member of the order Corallimorpharia, and is the only member found in the North American West Coast. Other common names include club-tipped anemone and strawberry corallimorpharian. The anemone can live up to at least 50 meters deep on vertical rock walls, and at the bottom of kelp forests. It is known to carpet the bottom of some areas, like Campbell River in British Columbia, and Monterey Bay in California.
Sea anemones are the marine, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria. They are named after the anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant, because of the colourful appearance of many. Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. As cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and Hydra. Unlike jellyfish, sea anemones do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle.
Zoanthus sociatus, commonly known as the green sea mat or button polyp, is a zoanthid usually found in shallow reef zones of tropical regions from Caribbean to southeastern Brazil. Z. sociatus is currently being studied for its use against human lymphatic parasites.
Parazoanthus axinellae, commonly known as the yellow cluster anemone, is a zoanthid coral found on the southern Atlantic coasts of Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea. Zoanthids differ from true sea anemones, in having a different internal anatomy and in forming true colonies in which the individual animals (polyps) are connected by a common tissue, called the coenenchyme.
Pavona duerdeni, the porkchop coral, is a coral that forms clusters of cream-colored lobes or discs. They grow in large colonies, divided into ridges or hillocks. The coral is considered to be uncommon due to its low confirmed abundance, yet they are more commonly found in Hawaii, the Indo-Pacific, and the Tropical Eastern Pacific. They make up some of the largest colonies of corals, and have a slow growth rate, as indicated by their dense skeletons. Their smooth appearance is due to their small corallites growing on their surface.
The Cape zoanthid is a species of zoanthid in the family Parazoanthidae.
Galaxea fascicularis is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Euphylliidae, commonly known as octopus coral, fluorescence grass coral, galaxy coral among various vernacular names.
Umimayanthus parasiticus, commonly known as the sponge zoanthid, is a species of coral in the order Zoantharia which grows symbiotically on several species of sponge. It is found in shallow waters in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
Palythoa is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.
Astrangia poculata, the northern star coral or northern cup coral, is a species of non-reefbuilding stony coral in the family Rhizangiidae. It is native to shallow water in the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found on the western coast of Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists this coral as being of "least concern". Astrangia poculata is an emerging model organism for corals because it harbors a facultative photosymbiosis, is a calcifying coral, and has a large geographic range. Research on this emerging model system is showcased annually by the Astrangia Research Working Group, collaboratively hosted by Roger Williams University, Boston University, and Southern Connecticut State University
Palythoa toxica, also referred to by its Hawaiian common name, limu-make-o-Hana, is a species of zoanthid native to Hawaii. It is notable as the species in which palytoxin was discovered and from which it was first isolated.
Cirrhipathes is a genus of black coral from the family Antipathidae. Coral species in this genus are commonly known as whip or wire corals because they often exhibit a twisted or coiled morphology. In addition to their colorful appearance, with colors ranging from yellow to red passing through blue and green, these species possess a dark skeleton that is characteristic to every black coral.
Coelastrea aspera is a species of stony coral in the family Merulinidae. It is a colonial species native to the Indo-Pacific region where it occurs in shallow water. It was first described by the American zoologist Addison Emery Verrill in 1866 as Goniastrea aspera but it has since been determined that it should be in a different genus and its scientific name has been changed to Coelastrea aspera. This is a common species throughout much of its wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".
Parazoanthus darwini is a species of macrocnemic zoanthid first found in the Galapagos. It can be distinguished by its association with sponges, by having about 24–30 tentacles and polyps embedded in a well-developed coenenchyme.