Joffre-class aircraft carrier

Last updated

Joffre.svg
Joffre-class fleet carrier
Class overview
NameJoffre class
Builders Ateliers et Chantiers de Saint-Nazaire Penhoët, Saint-Nazaire
OperatorsCivil and Naval Ensign of France.svg  French Navy
Preceded by Béarn
Succeeded by Clemenceau class
Built1938–1940
Planned2
Cancelled2
General characteristics
Type Aircraft carrier
Displacement
Length236 m (774 ft 3 in)
Beam24.6 m (80 ft 9 in) (waterline)
Draft6.6 m (21 ft 8 in)
Installed power
Propulsion2 shafts; 2 geared steam turbines
Speed33.5 knots (62.0 km/h; 38.6 mph)
Range7,000  nmi (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph)
Complement1,250
Armament
Armor
Aircraft carried40

The Joffre class consisted of a pair of aircraft carriers ordered by the Marine Nationale (French Navy) prior to World War II. The Navy had commissioned an experimental carrier in 1927, but it was slow and obsolete by the mid-1930s. Support for naval aviation in the navy was weak during this time as it had lost control of its aircraft, its training and their development to the new Air Ministry when it formed in 1928 and did not regain full control until 1936. Traditionalists among the naval leadership had begun a battleship building program in the early 1930s to counter German ships that were suitable for commerce raiding and carriers were deemed useful to hunt them down, especially once the Germans began building a carrier of their own in 1936.

Contents

One ship was laid down in 1938, but was not launched before all work was cancelled after the Armistice of 22 June 1940. The incomplete hull of Joffre was subsequently scrapped.

Background

The Marine Nationale ordered the conversion of the incomplete Normandie-class battleship Béarn into an aircraft carrier in 1922 to gain experience with carrier aviation. The following year the Naval General Staff requested another carrier similar to Béarn, but this was rejected as too expensive and plans were made for a cheaper aircraft transport that eventually became the seaplane carrier Commandant Teste. [1]

The 1928 formation of the Ministère de l'Air (Air Ministry) cost the Marine Nationale control of naval aviation as the new ministry centralized all aspects of military aviation, including aircraft development, training, bases and coastal aircraft. With the Navy only controlling the aircraft aboard its ships, the development of naval aviation stagnated as it was generally ignored by the ministry and no new carrier aircraft were developed in 1928–1932. The Marine Nationale was able to gradually reduce the ministry's control between 1931 and 1934 until it regained full control in August 1936. By this time the Marine Nationale had embarked on a building program for 29–32- knot (54–59 km/h; 33–37 mph) fast battleships to counter possible German commerce raiders in the North Atlantic that the 21-knot (39 km/h; 24 mph)Béarn was simply too slow to support. The Navy believed that carrier operations within range of hostile land-based aircraft were not viable given the limited size of their air groups and the commerce protection mission was ideal for its carriers. Design studies for a carrier able to operate with the new ships began in 1934, but two ships were not authorized until 1937, possibly in response to the laying down of the carrier Graf Zeppelin by Nazi Germany in 1936. [2]

Description

The Joffre-class carriers were 228 meters (748 ft) long between perpendiculars and 236 meters (774 ft 3 in) long overall. They had a beam of 24.6 meters (80 ft 9 in) at the waterline and 34.5 meters (113 ft 2 in) at the flight deck. The ships displaced 18,000 metric tons (17,716 long tons ) at standard load and 20,000 t (19,684 long tons) at full load, which gave them a draft of 6.6 meters (21 ft 8 in). [3] Their crew numbered 70 officers and 1,180 sailors. [4]

The Marine Nationale based the propulsion machinery of the Joffres on that used in the light cruiser De Grasse, albeit with eight Indret water-tube boilers rather than four. The ships were fitted with two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by the boilers at a working pressure of 35  kg/cm2 (3,432  kPa ; 498  psi ) and a temperature of 385 °C (725 °F). The turbines were rated at a total of 120,000 shaft horsepower (89,484  kW ; 121,664  PS ) and were designed to give a speed of 33.5 knots (62.0 km/h; 38.6 mph). The carriers retained the unit system of machinery with each boiler room supplying steam to the engine room aft of it so that one hit could not completely immobilize the ships. The boiler uptakes were trunked into a single funnel integrated into the island on the starboard side of the flight deck. The ships were designed to carry enough fuel oil to give them a range of 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). [5]

Aviation facilities

The ships' 201-meter-long (659 ft 5 in) flight deck was offset to the left from the centerline. This helped to compensate for the weight of the very large island and allowed it to have a continuous width of 27 meters (88 ft 7 in). The deck itself was 16 millimeters (0.63 in) in thickness. The carriers were intended to be fitted with an aircraft-handling crane near the stern, below the flight deck that were strong enough to lift a seaplane aboard. They had a fuel capacity of approximately 270,000 litres (59,000 imp gal; 71,000 US gal) of aviation gasoline. [6]

The Marine Nationale optimized the design of the Joffre class for "double-ended" operations, where aircraft could land and take off over both the bow and stern, so that battle damage to the flight deck would not necessarily end flight operations. Like Béarn, the Joffre's had their arresting gear amidships, abreast the island, although the number of wires was increased to nine. While the amidships position minimized the ships' pitching in high seas, the air turbulence generated by the island was at its worst amidships. Based on trials aboard Béarn in 1935, collapsible landing signals were positioned on the centerline of the flight deck amid the arresting wires, facing in both directions. The flight deck was not provided with any crash barriers, so the American practice of keeping aircraft on the deck during landing operations was not possible. [7]

The two hydraulically powered elevators that transferred aircraft between the flight deck and the upper hangar were positioned at the ends of the flight deck, allowing aircraft landing amidships to taxi forward to the elevators and rapidly clear the flight deck. Both elevators were configured to be used by aircraft with their wings still spread, eliminating the requirement to fold the wings before using the elevators that slowed down Béarn's flight operations. The forward elevator was roughly T-shaped and measured 13 m (42 ft 8 in) long and 17 m (55 ft 9 in) wide; the large elevator well so close to the bow weakened the ships' structure so the designers minimized the size of the well in the hangar deck by only seating the central 6 m (19 ft 8 in) section in the deck while the outer areas of the elevator rested on top of the deck, requiring a small ramp to move on or off the elevator. The rear elevator was outside the hangar and only its forward end reached the flight deck. Although it only measured 12.5 by 6 m (41 ft 0 in by 19 ft 8 in), its position allowed it to strike down aircraft regardless of size. [8]

The carriers were designed with two hangar decks, the upper of which measured 158.5 by 20.8 m (520 ft 0 in by 68 ft 3 in) with a height of 4.8 m (15 ft 9 in). A space 20 m (65 ft 7 in) long below the flight deck and between the upper hangar and the rear elevator allowed aircraft to warm up their engines before moving to the flight deck. A single fire curtain amidships could be used to divide the hangar. It was the only one that could be used for aircraft operations as the lower hangars were dedicated to workshops and aircraft assembly and storage facilities. The rear lower hangar was 79 by 14.9 m (259 ft 2 in by 48 ft 11 in) in size and had a height of 4.4 m (14 ft 5 in). A 13 by 7 m (42 ft 8 in by 23 ft 0 in) elevator at the forward end of this hangar allowed aircraft to be transferred between the hangars. This elevator was offset to starboard to allow for a passageway to the lower hangar annex that measured 42 by 6.6 m (137 ft 10 in by 21 ft 8 in). This annex, presumably dedicated to spare parts, was offset to port to make room for the boiler uptakes and ventilation ducting of the forward engine and fire rooms. [9]

Based on their decade of experience with Béarn and frequent exercises with the British Fleet Air Arm during the 1930s, the Aéronavale (French Naval Aviation) believed that air operations would be continuous, with small numbers of aircraft taking off or landing. This required multi-role aircraft, able to switch between missions as the tactical situation dictated. The Joffre-class carriers were designed with an air group of 40 aircraft, 15 single-engined fighters and 25 twin-engined aircraft capable of long-range reconnaissance, bombing and torpedo attacks. In 1939 the Navy ordered 120 Dewoitine D.790 fighters, a navalized variant of the Dewoitine D.520, although no aircraft was completed before the Armistice cancelled further work. It issued the A47 specification in 1937 for attack aircraft to equip the carriers and ordered two prototypes each of the SNCAO CAO.600 and the Dewoitine D.750 in 1939. The Aéronavale issued the updated A80 specification that same year for a faster aircraft and selected the Bréguet Bre.810, a navalized version of the Bréguet Bre.693, but the prototype was not completed before the Armistice. [10]

Armament, fire control and armor

The carriers' primary armament consisted of eight 45-caliber Canon de 130 mm (5.1 in) Mle 1932 dual-purpose guns in four twin-gun turrets positioned fore and aft of the island in superfiring pairs. [11] The guns fired a 32.11-kilogram (70.8 lb) armor-piercing shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 m/s (2,600 ft/s). This gave them a range of 20,870 meters (22,820 yd) at an elevation of +45°. Their mounts had a maximum elevation of +75° and the guns had a rate of fire of about 10 rounds per minute. [12]

Light anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight 48-caliber Canon de 37 mm (1.5 in) Mle 1935 guns in four twin-gun ACAD mounts on the island, and twenty-eight Hotchkiss Mitrailleuse de 13.2 mm (0.52 in) Mle 1929 machine guns in seven quadruple mounts. There were two mounts on the forecastle, two on the stern and a pair on the island. The remaining mount was on the port side underneath the flight deck overhang. The 37 mm guns were fully automatic and had a theoretical rate of fire of 165 rounds per minute. They had a range of 8,000 meters (8,700 yd) with their 0.831-kilogram (1.83 lb) shells which were fired at a muzzle velocity of 825 m/s (2,710 ft/s). Their mounts had an elevation range of -10° to +85°. The 13.2 mm machine guns had an effective range of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). [13]

The 130 mm guns were controlled by a pair of superimposed directors on the top of a short tower on the roof of the island. The upper director was equipped with a 5-meter (16 ft 5 in) rangefinder for anti-aircraft defense and the lower with a 6-meter (19 ft 8 in) one for surface engagements. Each of the upper 130 mm turrets was fitted with a rotating 5-meter rangefinder as a backup to the directors. A director equipped with a 2-meter (6 ft 7 in) rangefinder remotely controlled each ACAD mount. The two forward directors were superimposed on the roof of the island while the two after directors were side-by-side aft of the director tower. [14]

The waterline armor belt of the Joffre-class ships covered the middle 120 meters (393 ft 8 in) of the hull, from the forward magazines to the aft aviation gasoline tank. It was 105 millimeters (4.1 in) thick and had a height of about 3.7 meters (12 ft 2 in) from the main deck to 1.45 meters (4 ft 9 in) below the waterline. It formed an armored citadel with 70-millimeter (2.8 in) transverse bulkheads at its ends. The armored deck was 70 mm thick over the magazines and gasoline tanks, but reduced to 30 millimeters (1.2 in) amidships over the machinery compartments. The 6.6-meter-deep (21 ft 8 in) torpedo belt ranged in thickness from 35 to 55 millimeters (1.4 to 2.2 in) abreast the propulsion machinery spaces, but thinned to 26 millimeters (1 in) abreast the magazines. The steering compartment was fitted with 26-millimeter armor plates. The 130 mm directors, turrets, their hoists, and their upper handling rooms were protected by 20 millimeters (0.8 in) of armor, as were the command spaces in the island. For protection against fire, the aviation gasoline tanks were surrounded by either empty compartments with fire-resistant insulation or inert gases on all sides. [15]

Ships

The beginning of World War II less than a year after Joffre was laid down led to a slow down of construction as resources were diverted to higher-priority tasks and the ultimate cessation of work that came in June 1940 when the country capitulated after the German invasion when the ship was approximately 20% complete. Work on Joffre was not continued by the Germans and the hull was scrapped. The second planned vessel of the class, Painlevé, was never laid down because it was supposed to succeed Joffre on Slipway No. 1. A third ship was intended to be authorized in 1940 to replace Béarn, but the order was never placed. [16]

The Marine Nationale demonstrated no sense of urgency in building Joffre as the bulk of the naval leadership felt completing the two Richelieu-class battleships to match the modern German and Italian battleships was more important. This was further demonstrated when the first ship of the Alsace-class battleships was authorized on 1 April 1940 and replaced Painlevé in the queue for Slipway No. 1. This belief was not unreasonable as the Germans had suspended work on Graf Zeppelin and the British had an ample number of carriers that could perform the trade protection mission in the North Atlantic. [17]

Construction data
NameNamesake [18] Builder [3] Laid down [3] Launched [3] Fate [3]
Joffre Marshal Joseph Joffre Ateliers et Chantiers de Saint-Nazaire Penhoët, Saint-Nazaire 26 November 1938N/AConstruction abandoned, June 1940, subsequently scrapped
Painlevé Paul Painlevé N/AN/A

Related Research Articles

Italian battleship <i>Giulio Cesare</i> Dreadnought battleship of the Italian Royal Navy

Giulio Cesare was one of three Conte di Cavour-class dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Italian Navy in the 1910s. Completed in 1914, she was little used and saw no combat during the First World War. The ship supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 and spent much of the rest of the decade in reserve. She was rebuilt between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns, additional armor and considerably more speed than before.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Hiryū</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Hiryū was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the 1930s. Generally regarded as the only ship of her class, she was built to a modified Sōryū design. Her aircraft supported the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in mid-1940. She took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Wake Island. During the first few months of the Pacific War, the ship supported the conquest of the Dutch East Indies in January 1942. The following month, her aircraft bombed Darwin, Australia; and continued to assist in the Dutch East Indies campaign. In April, Hiryū's aircraft helped sink two British heavy cruisers and several merchant ships during the Indian Ocean Raid.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Kaga</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Kaga was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Originally intended to be one of two Tosa-class battleships, Kaga was converted under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty to an aircraft carrier as the replacement for the battlecruiser Amagi, which had been irreparably damaged during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. Kaga was rebuilt in 1933–1935, increasing her top speed, improving her exhaust systems, and adapting her flight decks to accommodate more modern, heavier aircraft.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Shōkaku</i> Shōkaku-class aircraft carrier

Shōkaku was the lead ship of her class of two aircraft carriers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) shortly before the Pacific War. Along with her sister ship Zuikaku, she took part in several key naval battles during the war, including the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of the Coral Sea, and the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, before being torpedoed and sunk by the U.S. submarine USS Cavalla at the Battle of the Philippine Sea.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Sōryū</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Sōryū was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the mid-1930s. A sister ship, Hiryū, was intended to follow Sōryū, but Hiryū's design was heavily modified and she is often considered to be a separate class. Sōryū's aircraft were employed in operations during the Second Sino-Japanese War in the late 1930s and supported the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in mid-1940. During the first months of the Pacific War, she took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Wake Island, and supported the conquest of the Dutch East Indies. In February 1942, her aircraft bombed Darwin, Australia, and she continued on to assist in the Dutch East Indies campaign. In April, Sōryū's aircraft helped sink two British heavy cruisers and several merchant ships during the Indian Ocean raid.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Akagi</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Akagi was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Though she was laid down as an Amagi-class battlecruiser, Akagi was converted to an aircraft carrier while still under construction to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. The ship was rebuilt from 1935 to 1938 with her original three flight decks consolidated into a single enlarged flight deck and an island superstructure. The second Japanese aircraft carrier to enter service, and the first large or "fleet" carrier, Akagi and the related Kaga figured prominently in the development of the IJN's new carrier striking force doctrine that grouped carriers together, concentrating their air power. This doctrine enabled Japan to attain its strategic goals during the early stages of the Pacific War from December 1941 until mid-1942.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Hōshō</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Hōshō was the world's first commissioned ship that was built as an aircraft carrier, and the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Commissioned in 1922, the ship was used for testing carrier aircraft operations equipment, techniques, such as take-offs and landings, and carrier aircraft operational methods and tactics. The ship provided valuable lessons and experience for the IJN in early carrier air operations. Hōshō's superstructure and other obstructions to the flight deck were removed in 1924 on the advice of experienced aircrews.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Shinano</i> Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Shinano was an aircraft carrier built by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II, the largest such built up to that time. Laid down in May 1940 as the third of the Yamato-class battleships, Shinano's partially complete hull was ordered to be converted to an aircraft carrier following Japan's disastrous loss of four of its original six fleet carriers at the Battle of Midway in mid-1942. The advanced state of her construction prevented her conversion into a fleet carrier, so the IJN decided to convert her into a carrier that supported other carriers.

Taihō was an aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Possessing heavy belt armor and featuring an armored flight deck, she represented a major departure from prior Japanese aircraft carrier design and was expected to not only survive multiple bomb, torpedo, or shell hits, but also continue fighting effectively afterwards.

Italian aircraft carrier <i>Aquila</i> Italian aircraft carrier

Aquila was an Italian aircraft carrier converted from the transatlantic passenger liner SS Roma. During World War II, Work on Aquila began in late 1941 at the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa and continued for the next two years. With the signing of the Italian armistice on 8 September 1943, however, all work was halted and the vessel remained unfinished. She was captured by the National Republican Navy of the Italian Social Republic and the German occupation forces in 1943, but in 1945 she was partially sunk by a commando attack of Mariassalto, an Italian royalist assault unit of the Co-Belligerent Navy of the Kingdom of Italy, made up by members of the former Decima Flottiglia MAS. Aquila was eventually refloated and scrapped in 1952.

Amagi (天城) was an Unryū-class aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Named after Mount Amagi, and completed late in the war, she never embarked her complement of aircraft and spent the war in Japanese waters. The ship capsized in July 1945 after being hit multiple times during airstrikes by American carrier aircraft while moored at Kure Naval Base. Amagi was refloated in 1946 and scrapped later that year.

Béarn was an aircraft carrier converted from an incomplete Normandie-class battleship for the Marine nationale during the 1920s. Entering service in 1928, the navy intended to use her to develop tactics and techniques for carrier aviation. The only aircraft carrier France produced until after World War II, the ship played a minor role in early stages of the war, training in home waters and conducting pilot training.

French seaplane carrier <i>Commandant Teste</i> French seaplane tender

Commandant Teste was a large seaplane tender of the French Navy built before World War II. She was designed to be as large as possible without counting against the Washington Treaty limits. During the Spanish Civil War, she protected neutral merchant shipping and played a limited role during World War II as she spent the early part of the war in North African waters or acting as an aviation transport between France and North Africa. She was slightly damaged during the British bombardment of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kébir in July 1940. Commandant Teste was scuttled at Toulon when the Germans invaded Vichy France in November 1942, but was refloated after the war and considered for conversion to an escort or training carrier. Neither proposal was accepted and she was sold for scrap in 1950.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Unryū</i> Imperial Japanese Navys Unryū-class aircraft carrier

The Japanese aircraft carrier Unryū was the lead ship of her class of fleet aircraft carriers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. She was commissioned in mid-1944, but fuel and aircrew shortages limited her use to Japanese waters. The impending American invasion of Luzon caused the IJN to order her to transport aircraft and supplies to the Philippines in December. The ship was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine USS Redfish in the East China Sea during the voyage.

<i>Normandie</i>-class battleship Abortive super-dreadnought class of the French Navy

The Normandie class consisted of five dreadnought battleships ordered for the French Navy in 1912–1913, Normandie, the lead ship, Flandre, Gascogne, Languedoc, and Béarn. The design incorporated a radical arrangement for the twelve 340 mm (13.4 in) main battery guns: three quadruple-gun turrets, the first of their kind, as opposed to the twin-gun turrets used by most other navies. The first four ships were to be fitted with an unusual hybrid propulsion system that used both steam turbines and triple-expansion steam engines to increase fuel efficiency.

<i>Lyon</i>-class battleship Proposed fleet of battleships for the French Navy

The Lyon class was a set of battleships planned for the French Navy in 1913, with construction scheduled to begin in 1915. The class was to have comprised four ships, named Lyon, Lille, Duquesne, and Tourville. The first two were named for cities in France, and the latter pair honored the French admirals Abraham Duquesne and Anne Hilarion de Tourville. The Lyon class' design was an improvement on the previous Normandie class, utilizing a fourth quadruple-gun turret to mount a total of sixteen 34 cm (13.4 in) guns. Construction on the Lyons was cancelled due to the August 1914 outbreak of World War I, before any of the ships were laid down.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aircraft cruiser</span> Type of warship

The aircraft cruiser is a warship that combines the features of the aircraft carrier and a surface warship such as a cruiser or battleship.

<i>Tosa</i>-class battleship Class of Japanese dreadnoughts that did not see service as battleships

The Tosa-class battleships were two dreadnoughts ordered as part of the "Eight-Eight" fleet for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the early 1920s. The ships were larger versions of the preceding Nagato class, and carried an additional 41-centimeter (16.1 in) twin-gun turret. The design for the class served as a basis for the Amagi-class battlecruisers.

Japanese aircraft carrier <i>Katsuragi</i> Imperial Japanese Navys Unryū-class aircraft carrier

Katsuragi (葛城) was the third and final Unryū-class aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy built during World War II. Named after Mount Katsuragi, in Nara Prefecture, and completed late in the war; she never embarked her complement of aircraft and spent the war in Japanese waters. The ship was badly damaged in a July 1945 airstrike by American carrier aircraft on Kure Naval Base. Repaired after the end of the war, Katsuragi was then used as a repatriation transport for a number of months, bringing Japanese soldiers and civilians back to Japan from overseas locations. She was scrapped in Japan beginning in late 1946.

<i>Shōkaku</i>-class aircraft carrier Aircraft carrier class of the Imperial Japanese Navy

The Shōkaku class consisted of two aircraft carriers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the late 1930s. Completed shortly before the start of the Pacific War in 1941, the Shōkaku and Zuikaku were called "arguably the best aircraft carriers in the world" when built. With the exception of the Battle of Midway, they participated in every major naval action of the Pacific War, including the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Indian Ocean Raid, the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf.

References

  1. Jordan 2003, pp. 26–29
  2. Jordan 2010, pp. 60–61, 76
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Roberts, p. 261
  4. Jordan 2010, p. 64
  5. Jordan 2010, pp. 64, 70; Jordan & Moulin, p. 147
  6. Jordan 2010, pp. 62–63, 67, 76
  7. Jordan 2010, pp. 62–63, 66–67
  8. Jordan 2010, pp. 63, 66–67
  9. Jordan 2010, pp. 67–68
  10. Jordan 2010, pp. 60, 72–73
  11. Chesneau, pp. 66–67
  12. Campbell, p. 300
  13. Campbell, p. 308; Jordan & Moulin, pp. 116, 161
  14. Jordan 2010, pp. 64, 69–70
  15. Jordan 2010, pp. 65, 70–71
  16. Jordan 2010, p. 74
  17. Jordan 2010, pp. 75–76; Jordan & Dumas, p. 180
  18. Silverstone, pp. 103, 107

Bibliography

Further reading