Brown was, at the time of his execution, the most famous living American: emblem for the North, as Wendell Phillips put it,[1] a mad traitor in the South. His trial was the first in which there was national newspaper coverage, using the still-new telegraph. Reporters and sketch artists were sent to cover the trial. Newspapers and magazines carried many articles on it.
The John Brown affair is the last major event leading up to the Civil War. In fact the Governor of Virginia Henry A. Wise, who was very much involved, thought that the Civil War could begin in 1859 in Charles Town.[2] He moved, at considerable expense, as many Virginia militia as possible to Charles Town, which was said to resemble a military camp.[3]
What to do with John Brown's body was a question of national significance.[4] A modern scholar called the journey of his corpse "a media event of the highest order."[5]Union soldiers sang "John Brown's Body" as they marched during the war.
Dr. W. C. Hicks, of the New Orleans School of Medicine, offered, in a letter to Governor Wise, to pay Virginia $500 (equivalent to $16,956in 2023) for Brown's remains, to be used for dissection by medical students. He also pledged that once the skeleton was "properly dried and arranged", he would exhibit it throughout New England, not for money, but to "frighten every Scoundrel Abolitionist out of the country".[6]:123 "The medical faculty of Richmond College" also requested, on November 2, "the bodies of such as may be executed."[7] Wise instead had the body released to Mary Ann Day Brown, John's widow, who was awaiting it in Harpers Ferry to take it home for burial. It was the corpse of a son of Brown (only much later identified as Watson) that was turned into an anatomical specimen, with a note saying it was a message to abolitionists (see Burning of Winchester Medical College). The corpses of three other members of Brown's party—Shields Green, John Anthony Copeland Jr., and Jeremiah Anderson—were also used by medical students.
Other proposals
The Richmond Examiner proposed that Brown's body be “chopped into small pieces, in the Chinese manner, and distributed in terrorem all over the land."[8]
Brown wanted his body and those of his sons and the two Thompson boys burned,[6]:181 which he said would be much less expensive than burial,[9][10] but that was not allowed in Virginia, the Sheriff said, and Mrs. Brown did not want it either.[11][12][13][14] Also, she did not feel up to identifying the partially decomposed body of Oliver, dead for over a month.[15][16] She rejected the repeated suggestion of Wendell Phillips, Lydia Maria Child, and others that John be buried "with impressive funeral solemnities" in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the erection of a monument. Also she rejected proposals to pack his body in ice, with the rope around his neck, and exhibit it in "all our principal cities and even the minor ones."
The trip to North Elba
Harpers Ferry to Rutland, Vermont
Despite the "great propaganda value" of these proposed measures,[17]:47 Mary set off early Saturday morning, December 3, on the one daily Baltimore and Ohio express train for Baltimore—the same one Brown stopped on October 16, and Robert E. Lee took home on October 19—with her husband's body. She was accompanied by James Miller McKim and Hector Tyndale. In Baltimore she changed trains for Philadelphia, arriving about 12:30 pm.[18] Mary intended to stop there, rest, and have the body prepared by an undertaker, "but the prospect of the body's approach produced such an excitement in that city...that the Mayor believed it would be impossible, if the body should remain," to maintain public order.[19] Accompanied by many policemen, he met the train. Although most of the crowd awaiting its arrival consisted of sympathetic Blacks, the Mayor took a long tool box from a baggage car, covered it, and had it taken away quickly, the crowd following the sham coffin.[20]:234 Brown's body was taken immediately by ferry to Camden, New Jersey, and from there via the Camden & Amboy Railroad to South Amboy, New Jersey. A Quaker undertaker, Jacob M. Hopper, met the ferry from South Amboy to New York at the ferry port, The Battery. Although Hopper's studio was in Brooklyn, he rented briefly a room at another funeral establishment, McGraw and Taylor, at 163 Bowery, in Manhattan. There is a historic marker.[21] There he removed the body from the plain coffin it came in,[22] washed it, dressed it, and placed it in a 5feet 10inches (1.78m) walnut coffin.[23] A small crowd gathered outside the establishment. After resting Saturday night in Philadelphia Mrs. Brown continued to New York on Sunday, spending the night there with friends.[24]:70
At 7 AM on Monday the 5th, Mrs. Brown, described as "quite unwell", McKim, Richard P. Hallowell, and the coffin proceeded north on the Hudson River Railroad, the oak coffin having been placed inside a pine box.[25] They were accompanied by a reporter from the New-York Tribune and Thomas Nast, a sketch artist for Harper's and the New York Illustrated Weekly. Church bells rang and crowds gathered as they proceeded up the Hudson[17]:48[26] to Troy, New York, where they were joined by Wendell Phillips, arriving from Boston with the hope of bringing Brown's body to Boston for burial in Mount Auburn Cemetery.[27] An impromptu announcement said this was not going to happen, since Brown had wanted to be buried at his farm.[4][25] Waiting for the next train they stopped briefly at the American House hotel, where John had often stayed, and whose manager said he had been offered "tempting prices" for the signatures in his register.[26] Another train took them to Rutland, Vermont, where they spent Monday night.
Rutland to North Elba
Essex County Courthouse, Elizabethtown, New York, 1858John Brown's Trial, painting hanging in the Essex County (NY) Courthouse. Note the cot behind him.John Brown's coffin and accompanying party arrive at his house in North Elba, NY, 1859.
On Tuesday morning, December 6, the party continued by train to Vergennes, from which a ferry crossed Lake Champlain. 75 citizens escorted the party to the border of the city, standing in two lines with uncovered heads as the coffin passed by.[28] A "procession of carriages" escorted them to the lake shore, with church bells ringing,[24]:71 and they boarded the ferry, which altered its normal docking point on the New York side to leave them closer to their destination.[20][26]
A wagon awaited them at Westport, New York, and took them to Elizabethtown over an abandoned plank road, described as "excessively rough and unpleasant".[29]:666 Tuesday night, December 6, was spent at Adam's Hotel in Elizabethtown, New York.[30] Brown's body lay in state at the Essex County Courthouse, with an honor guard of six men,[26][20]:237[6]:124 chief among them Orlando Kellogg, "who never tired of telling the story of that December night".[31]:18 Wendell Phillips gave an impromptu talk of almost two hours on Brown's failed raid, his trial, and his execution.[32] There is a historical marker,[33] and in the Courthouse, since 1923, a painting of John Brown on trial.
The next day, December 7, the casket and the party, in two wagons, made the "most arduous trip" to Brown's farm.[34][20]:238 It took a whole day to cover the 20 miles (32km) from Elizabethtown, through Keene, to North Elba. Everyone had to get off the wagons and walk for part of the day, to lighten the load on the horses. The descent was even more dangerous than the ascent. From Keene to North Elba they went via what is today (2021) called Old Mountain Road,[35][36] not via Indian Pass, as Young misremembered.[20]:238 The final part of the road, impassible to vehicles for many years, is since 1986 part of the Jackrabbit Ski Trail.[37]
From 2002 to 2005 a yearly excursion retraced this most difficult part of the trip.[38] In 2005 a guidebook to the route was published.[31][39][29]
John Brown's burial, North Elba, NY, December 8, 1859. Note the boulder on the left.
His funeral, with open casket, and burial took place on December 8, 1859, at the John Brown Farm State Historic Site, near modern Lake Placid, New York, where his "body lies a-mouldering", as the Battle Hymn of the Republic says. "Quite a number" of local residents attended.[4][40] Oliver's widow was present, but not the widow of Watson.[24]:73 It would be many years before their bodies, along with those of Ruth Brown's husband William Thompson and his brother Augustus Dauphin Thompson, were recovered and buried next to their father.[41]
The company sang Brown's favorite hymn, "Blow ye the trumpet—Blow".[42][20]:239 The hymn's reference to Joel 2:1, "Let all the inhabitants of the land tremble, for the day of the Lord is coming, it is near" was known to those that read the Bible, and it announced the liberation of slaves, for "The year of jubilee is come! Return, ye ransomed sinners, home." Eldest daughter Ruth accompanied on a melodeon, a wedding present from her father,[43] later to occupy a niche in her home in Pasadena, California,[44]
Rev. Joshua Young, from nearby Burlington, heard of the upcoming burial as the body passed through Rutland, and decided to attend, traveling all night—the moon was almost full[45]—and arriving only hours before the ceremony. As he was the only clergyman present—others had declined[46]—Phillips requested that he conduct the funeral service, and Young said he then "knew why God had sent [him] there".[20]:239 The reporter present, who took it down stenographically, called Young's impromptu opening prayer "impressive":
Our souls are filled with awe and are subdued to silence, as we think of that great, reverential, heroic soul, whose mortal remains we are now to commit to the earth, 'dust to dust,' while his spirit dwells with God who gave it, and his memory is enshrined in every pure and holy heart. ...May we consecrate ourselves anew to the work of Truth, Righteousness, and Love, forevermore to sympathize with the outcast and the oppressed, with the humble and the least of our suffering fellow-men.
...But, father in heaven, in imitation of the self-forgetfulness and self-sacrifice of the great departed, putting aside all personal anguish and all private grief, we supplicate thy special blessing upon God's despised ones—the poor enslaved, for whom our brother laid down his life. O! God cause the oppressed to go free, break any yoke and prostrate the pride and prejudice that dare to lift themselves up; and O! hasten the day when no more wrong or injustice shall be done on the earth; when all men shall love one another with pure hearts, fervently, and love God and do his will with all their soul and all their strength.[47]
James McKim, who had accompanied Mrs. Brown in retrieving the body of her husband from Virginia, then offered remarks, and Wendell Phillips gave what Rev. Young called "one of his matchless speeches... Every hearer saw a great vision—one never to be forgotten".[20]:239[26] According to Phillips, "hereafter you will tell children standing at your knees, 'I saw John Brown buried, — I sat under his roof.'"[48] Phillips "intimated that Massachusetts would yet possess the remains of John Brown."[30]
Brown had requested that he be buried next to the large boulder near his farmhouse: "When I die, bury me by the big rock where I love to sit and read the word of God."[49] As the body was lowered into the grave, Rev. Young recited the words of Paul just before his death, words John especially loved and which were inscribed in birch bark on the wall of a room in his house:[50] "I have fought the good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith. From now on there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will give me on that day" (2 Timothy 4:7–8).[51][20]:240 For this specifically, and in general for having presided over Brown's funeral, he found himself reviled upon his return home to Burlington.[20]:240–242[52] "I was called all manner of names. I was an anarchist, a traitor to my country, a blasphemer, and a 'vile associate of Garrison and Phillips.'"[53] "The best thing I ever did was called the worst."[54] He was eventually forced to resign his pulpit, and was told he would never get another ministerial position, which turned out not to be true.
Accompanying him back to Vermont, Wendell Phillips repeated his lecture, in a Town Hall full to overflowing, in Vergennes:
John Brown, said Mr. Phillips, represented the idea of the Northern people. He was emphatically one of those old Puritans of whom we love to dream. It is the death of men that make the greatest changes in the world. John Brown's death would effect a great change in American politics. A great man is one who becomes a centre for people to crystallize around. John Brown was such a man.[55]
Mr. Phillips carried to Boston, from North Elba, a "large quantity of valuable matter", intended for Mr. Child's promised memoir of John Brown (which never appeared). This matter consisted of letters and other papers, and photographs of several members of the Brown and Thompson families.[56] This material was then made available to the family's chosen biographer, James Redpath.
Memorial on July 4, 1860
His widow Mary soon complained to the press about "the multitude of letters addressed to her, for one purpose or another, by entire strangers, who have no claims upon her attention, and who seek to promote their own interest or gratify their curiosity, regardless of the restraints of delicacy and propriety."[57]
On July 4, 1860, there was a memorial ceremony in honor of Brown at his farm. A Programme was issued announcing it;[58] the family friends and biographers Richard J. Hinton and James Redpath signed them.[59] This was the last time the living members of Brown's family would gather as a group.[60][61] Those of his raiders still alive, except Tidd, also attended.
By 10 AM, 1,000 people were in attendance.[59][62]:16 The Declaration of Independence was read. Brown's favorite hymn, "Blow ye the trumpet, blow," was sung.[59]
The "Orator of the Day", who stood atop the large boulder when speaking, was Luther Lee, a senior member of the U.S. abolitionist movement, born the same year as John Brown (1800). He spoke for two hours.[63]
In 1860, the only son at the farm was Salmon, born in 1836, married in 1857.[65] The oldest boys, John Jr. and Jason, who, like Salmon, chose not to go to Harpers Ferry after their experiences in Kansas, were already farming in Ohio. Owen, escaping from the Harpers Ferry raid, joined them and remained in Ohio until the Civil War was over. Frederick was killed in Kansas; Oliver and Watson were killed at Harpers Ferry. Annie and Sarah were enrolled in Franklin Sanborn's school in Concord, Massachusetts; tuition was paid by George L. Stearns, one of the Secret Six.[66]:32
It was lonely for Mary, and more so after Salmon departed early in 1862 to join the Union Army; he was sworn in as 2nd Lieutenant of the 96th Regiment New York Volunteers, but he soon resigned, as those under him, presumably pro-slavery men, complained over his head about having a son of John Brown as their leader.[67][68][69] In 1863 she leased and in 1865 sold the farm, 244 acres (99ha), to Alexis Hinckley, a brother of Salmon's wife Abigail, for $800 (equivalent to $19,797in 2023).[70] The grave site was not sold, and it was written into the sale that everyone would be able to access John Brown's grave.
Accompanied by Salmon, his wife and two daughters, and Brown's daughters Sarah and Ellen, Mary set out in November 1863,[71] driven by Lyman Epps to the new rail line at Keene, for John Jr.'s home at Put-in-Bay, Ohio.[62]:18 John Jr. joined Mary in complaining about the large number of curiosity seekers that visited him. "Our house has been like a well-patronized Hotel," he said.[72]
Sarah Brown, 1912, recreating the conditions of their trip to California. (Dress and covered wagon are replicas.)
Pushing on, Mary bought a farm in Decorah, Iowa, raising poultry and quail,[73]:70 and was joined there by Annie, who had just spent six months teaching former slaves in Norfolk, Virginia.[72] After one winter, the hardest on record as of that date,[74] colder than anything they'd experienced in North Elba,[75] the family set off further west, in three covered wagons, via the Mormon Trail, crossing the Mississippi at Council Bluffs, Iowa, then Fort Kearny, Nebraska, and Soda Springs, Idaho.[62]:18–21 Southern sympathizers attempted to kill them on the trip, and four of Salmon's Merino sheep—travelling in a wagon—were poisoned. The family received a military escort for several hundred miles.[62]:21–24[68]
"You will ask how I liked crossing the Plains," wrote Annie to her sister in 1864. "It will do for one six mouths of one's life, but I should hate to waste another by doing it over again. We had a remarkably good time, and enjoyed it much; did not suffer deprivations or otherwise, as I supposed we should; still, I do not think I could advise any one to undertake the journey."[76]
The end of the trip, where they settled in the fall of 1864, after 25 weeks of travel, was Red Bluff, California.[62]:24–26[77] They were near destitute: "a hungry, almost barefoot, ragged lot".[78] Residents in Red Bluff helped them with their immediate needs.[71][73]:75 "We were given a sack of flour and other groceries, and I was given a pair of shoes and cloth for a dress," recalled Annie. "Mr. [Salmon] Brown got a job at once grubbing out young oaks for forty dollars. He did the job in eight days and we felt rich. How I loved California."[79]
A statewide subscription, in which California Governor Frederick Low participated, raised $450 (equivalent to $8,957in 2023),[80] bought land, and built her a small house in Red Bluff, California.[81][82][83] It is a California State Historic Landmark, Home of Mrs. John Brown, although unmarked.[84] Mary lived there from 1866 to 1870, working as nurse and midwife. Salmon started ranching nearby, with only two sheep that survived the trip, one ram and one ewe; when one was sheared, the quality of the wool made the newspaper.[77][85] He bought on credit new sheep and a ranch of 128 acres (52ha) near Corning, California. Annie (born 1843) taught in a school for Black children some distance away, boarding with a Black family,[72] until the school was destroyed by arson.[80] Sarah (born 1846) also taught school to Black children, then moved to San Francisco and worked for the U.S. Mint. Ellen (born 1854) attended the local school. However, hostility towards the Browns developed.[86][87]
Salmon Brown's sheep ranch, two miles from Bridgeville, Humboldt County, California
After six years Mary, Sarah, and Salmon and his family moved to Humboldt County. (Salmon's daughter says he left Red Bluff after two years.[78]) Salmon had lost many sheep in the winter and he sold his ranch and bought one of 320 acres (130ha),[88] where the weather was better for sheep, near Bridgeville. He was described in the press as prosperous.[89] Mary and Sarah lived in nearby Rohnerville.[90] In 1881 they moved to Saratoga, California, in Santa Clara County, and were joined by Ellen, her husband James Fablinger, a teacher, and their four small girls.[91] Salmon did not accompany them, and in 1889 leased 2,000 acres (810ha) and 2,000 sheep.[92] He added to the ranch, making it 3,000 acres (1,200ha), and he and his partner had fourteen thousand sheep.[73]:75 However, the loss of 8,000 of them during the winter of 1890–1891 led him to abandon sheep raising.[93] In 1893 he and his family moved to Salem, Oregon.[94][73]:75–76 Alone among the Brown children, he publicly defended his father at length.[95] In 1902 he moved to Portland, Oregon,[93] where he ended in economic distress,[96] and committed suicide because of the condition of his health and the burden he felt he was to his aged wife. He is buried in the Grand Army of the Republic Cemetery. Mary, Sarah, and Ellen are buried in Madronia Cemetery in Saratoga, California.[66]:58
Their farm near Saratoga, which the family only farmed two years, was in 1928 open as the "Historic John Brown Lodge" hotel, even though John never set foot in California and the Lodge was built after Mary's death. It later became Camp Stuart of the Boy Scouts of America;[97] the Boy Scouts having closed the camp, in 1996 it was controlled by the Santa Clara County Parks and Recreation Department.[66]:10
None of the Browns returned to visit the North Elba farm until the burial of Watson there, in 1882. Mary died in 1884.[98]
John Brown was a prominent leader in the American abolitionist movement in the decades preceding the Civil War. First reaching national prominence in the 1850s for his radical abolitionism and fighting in Bleeding Kansas, Brown was captured, tried, and executed by the Commonwealth of Virginia for a raid and incitement of a slave rebellion at Harpers Ferry in 1859.
North Elba is a town in Essex County, New York, United States. The population was 7,480 at the 2020 census.
Mary Ann Day Brown was the second wife of abolitionist John Brown, leader of a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, which attempted to start a campaign of liberating enslaved people in the South. Married at age 17, Mary raised 5 stepchildren and an additional 13 children born during her marriage. She supported her husband's activities by managing the family farm while he was away, which he often was. Mary and her husband helped enslaved Africans escape slavery via the Underground Railroad. The couple lived in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and in the abolitionist settlement of North Elba, New York. After the execution of her husband, she became a California pioneer.
Henry Alexander Wise was an American attorney, diplomat, politician and slave owner from Virginia. As the 33rd Governor of Virginia, Wise served as a significant figure on the path to the American Civil War, becoming heavily involved in the 1859 trial of abolitionist John Brown. After leaving office in 1860, Wise also led the move toward Virginia's secession from the Union in reaction to the election of Abraham Lincoln and the Battle of Fort Sumter.
Dangerfield F. Newby, was the oldest of John Brown's raiders, and one of the five black raiders. He died during Brown's raid on the federal armory in Harpers Ferry, Virginia.
John Brown's Fort was initially built in 1848 for use as a guard and fire engine house by the federal Harpers Ferry Armory, in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. An 1848 military report described the building as "An engine and guard-house 35 1/2 x 24 feet, one story brick, covered with slate, and having copper gutters and down spouts…"
Virginia v. John Brown was a criminal trial held in Charles Town, Virginia, in October 1859. The abolitionist John Brown was quickly prosecuted for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, murder, and inciting a slave insurrection, all part of his raid on the United States federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He was found guilty of all charges, sentenced to death, and was executed by hanging on December 2. He was the first person executed for treason in the United States.
It was in many respects a most remarkable trial. Capital cases have been exceedingly few in the history of our country where trial and conviction have followed so quickly upon the commission of the offense. Within a fortnight from the time when Brown had struck what he believed to be a righteous blow against what he felt to be the greatest sin of the age he was a condemned felon, with only thirty days between his life and the hangman's noose.
Shields Green, who also referred to himself as "'Emperor"', was, according to Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave from Charleston, South Carolina, and a leader in John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, in October 1859. He had lived for almost two years in the house of Douglass, in Rochester, New York, and Douglass introduced him there to Brown.
The John Brown Farm State Historic Site includes the home and final resting place of abolitionist John Brown (1800–1859). It is located on John Brown Road in the town of North Elba, 3 miles (5 km) southeast of Lake Placid, New York, where John Brown moved in 1849 to teach farming to African Americans. It has been called the highest farm in the state, "the highest arable spot of land in the State, if, indeed, soil so hard and sterile can be called arable."
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry was an effort by abolitionist John Brown, from October 16 to 18, 1859, to initiate a slave revolt in Southern states by taking over the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. It has been called the dress rehearsal for, or tragic prelude to, the American Civil War.
Aaron Dwight Stevens was an American abolitionist. The only one of John Brown's raiders with military experience, he was the chief military aide to Brown during his failed raid on the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. For his role in the raid, Stevens was executed on March 16, 1860. He was 29.
John Brown Jr. was the eldest son of the abolitionist John Brown. His mother was Brown's first wife, Dianthe Lusk Brown, who died when John Jr. was 11. He was born in Hudson, Ohio. In 1841 he tried teaching in a country school, but left it after one year, finding it frustrating and the children "snotty". In spring 1842 he enrolled at the Grand River Institute in Austinburg, Ohio. In July 1847 he married Wealthy Hotchkiss (1829–1911), who had also studied at the Grand River Institute. The couple settled in Springfield, Massachusetts, and had two children.
Owen Brown was the third son of abolitionist John Brown. He participated more in his father's anti-slavery activities than did any of his siblings. He was the only son to participate both in the Bleeding Kansas activities — specifically the Pottawatomie massacre, during which he killed a man — and his father's raid on Harpers Ferry. He was the only son of Brown present in Tabor, Iowa, when Brown's recruits were trained and drilled. He was also the son who joined his father in Chatham, Ontario, Canada, when the raid was planned; he was chosen as treasurer of the organization of which his father was made president.
Barclay Coppock, also spelled "Coppac", "Coppic", and "Coppoc", was a follower of John Brown and a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War. Along with his brother Edwin Coppock, he participated in Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry.
Timbuctoo, New York, was a mid-19th century farming community of African-American homesteaders in the remote town of North Elba, New York. It was located in the vicinity of 44.22°N 73.99°W, near today's Lake Placid village, in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York. Contrary to the information given out by donor Gerrit Smith, who said that the lots were in clusters, they were spread out over an area 40 miles (64 km) north to south, and 15 miles (24 km) east to west.
On Sunday night, October 16, 1859, the abolitionist John Brown led a band of 22 in a raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.
Watson Brown was a son of the abolitionist John Brown and his second wife Mary Day Brown, born in Franklin Mills, Ohio. He was married to Isabell "Belle" Thompson Brown, and they had a son Frederick W., who died of diphtheria at age 4, and is buried at what is now the John Brown Farm State Historic Site in North Elba, New York.
The Winchester Medical College (WMC) building, currently located at 302 W. Boscawen Street, Winchester, Virginia, along with all its records, equipment, museum, and library, was burned on May 16, 1862, by Union troops occupying the city. This was "retaliation for the dissection of cadavers from John Brown's Raid". More specifically, it was in retaliation for the desecration they discovered of one of those cadavers, the body of one of John Brown's sons, identified years later as Watson. The body of John Brown's son, fighting against slavery in the raid on Harpers Ferry, had been dishonored: made into an anatomical specimen in the College's museum, with the label "Thus always with Abolitionists". In addition, students at the school collected and then dissected the bodies of three other members of Brown's troop and a black boy was apparently tortured and killed there for favoring the Union.
Joshua Young was an abolitionist Congregational Unitarian minister who crossed paths with many famous people of the mid-19th century. He received national publicity, and lost his pulpit (job) for presiding in 1859 over the funeral of John Brown, both the most famous person in the country and the first person executed for treason in the history of the United States. Contrary to his friends' expectations, his resignation under pressure in Burlington did not ruin his career; the church in Burlington later apologized and invited him back to speak, "an honored guest", There is a memorial tablet in the church.
The Home of Mrs. John Brown is a Victorian house built in 1865 at 135 Main St., Red Bluff, in Tehama County, California. The home that Mrs. John Brown (1816–1884) lived in is a California Historical Landmark No. 117 listed on March 29, 1933. At the time Mrs. John Brown was the widow of famous abolitionist John Brown (1800–1859).
1 2 3 Meyer, Eugene L. (2018). Five for Freedom. The African American Soldiers in John Brown's Army. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books (Chicago Review Press). ISBN9781613735725.
↑ J. M. Hopper, General Furnishing Undertaker (December 4, 1859), [Statement and receipt], Brooklyn, New York, archived from the original on April 27, 2021, retrieved July 11, 2021{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
1 2 3 Nalty, Damon G. (1996). The Beowns of Madronia. Family of abolitionist John Brown buried in Madronia Cemetery Saratoga, California. Saratoga, California: Saratoga Historical Foundation.
↑ Libby, Jean (2006). "John Brown's Family and their California Refuge". John Brown's family in California: a journey by funeral train, covered wagon, through archives, to the Valley of Heart's Delight: including the years 1833-1926, and honoring descendants of the women abolitionists of Santa Clara County, now known as Silicon Valley. The article is a revised version of a paper published in The Californians, vol. 7, no. 9, 1989. Palo Alto, California. pp.6–12 (marked 14–22), at p. 11 (21). ISBN0977363821.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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