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The inherited, native lexicon of the Hindustani language exhibits a large number of extensive sound changes from its Middle Indo-Aryan and Old Indo-Aryan. Many sound changes are shared in common with other Indo-Aryan languages such as Marathi, Punjabi, and Bengali.
The history of Hindustani language is marked by a large number of borrowings at all stages. [1] [2] Native grammarians have devised a set of etymological classes for modern Indo-Aryan vocabulary:
In the context of Hindustani, other etymological classes of relevance are:
Like many other languages, many phenomena in the historical evolution of Hindustani are better explained by the wave model than by the tree model. In particular, the oldest changes like the retroflexion of dental stops and loss of ṛ have been subject to a great deal of dialectal variance and borrowing. In the face of doublets like Hindustani baṛhnā (बढ़ना بڑھنا) "to increase" and badhnā (बधना بدھنا) "to increase" where one has undergone retroflexion and the other has not, it is difficult to know exactly under what conditions the sound change operated. [6] [7] One often encounters sound changes described as "spontaneous" or "sporadic" in the literature (such as "spontaneous nasalization"). This means that the sound change's context and/or isogloss (i.e. dialects in which the sound change operated) have been sufficiently obscured by inter-dialect borrowing, semi-learned adaptations to Classical Sanskrit or Prakrits, or analogical leveling.
Changes after this point characterize the New Indo-Aryan (NIA) era from the MIA period. These changes up to Old Hindi (OH) start to distinguish Hindi from nearby languages like Marathi, Gujarati, and Punjabi. Many of these rules are sporadically underway already in Late Prakrit/Apabhramsha.
The following sound changes characterize certain dialects of Old Hindi, later Old Hindi, and modern Hindustani. These changes distinguish Hindustani from other Central Indo-Aryan languages, like Braj Bhasha and Awadhi.
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some basic vocabulary items, leading from Sanskrit to Modern Hindustani. Words may not be attested at every stage.
Sanskrit | Early Prakrit | Middle Prakrit | Late Prakrit | (Early) Old Hindi | Hindustani | Meaning |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
यूथिका yūthikā /juː.t̪ʰi.kɑː/ | जूथिका jūthikā /d͡ʒuː.t̪ʰi.kɑː/ | जूहिआ jūhiā /d͡ʒuː.ɦi.ɑː/ | जूहिअ jūhia /ˈd͡ʒuː.ɦi.ɐ/ | जूही جوہیjūhī /d͡ʒuː.ɦiː/ | juhi flower | |
व्याघ्रः vyāghraḥ /ʋjɑːgʱ.ɾɐh/ | वग्घो vaggho /ʋɐg.gʱoː/ | वग्घु vagghu /ˈʋɐg.gʱu/ | बाघ باگھbāgha /bɑː.gʱɐ/ | बाघ باگھbāgh /bɑːgʱ/ | tiger | |
उत्पद्यते utpadyate /ut̪.pɐd̪.jɐ.t̪eː/ | उप्पज्जति uppajjati /up.pɐd.d͡ʒɐ.t̪i/ | उप्पज्जइ uppajjaï /up.pɐd.d͡ʒɐ.i/ | उपजै اپجیupajai /u.pɐ.d͡ʒa͡ɪ/ | उपजे اپجےupje /ʊp.d͡ʒeː/ | (it) grows | |
कुम्भकारः kumbhakāraḥ /kum.bʱɐ.kɑː.ɾɐh/ | कुम्भकारो kumbhakāro /kum.bʱɐ.kɑː.ɾoː/ | कुंभआरो kuṃbhaāro /kum.bʱɐ.ɑː.ɾoː/ | कुंभआरु kuṃbhaāru /kum.bʱɐˈɑː.ɾu/ | कुंभार کمبھارkumbhāra /kum.bʱɑː.ɾɐ/ | कुम्हार کمھارkumhār /kʊm.ɦɑːɾ/ | potter |
श्यामलकः śyāmalakaḥ /ɕjɑː.mɐ.lɐ.kɐh/ | सामलको sāmalako /sɑː.mɐ.lɐ.koː/ | सामलओ sāmalao /sɑː.mɐ.lɐ.oː/ | सावलउ sāṽalaü /sɑː.ʋ̃ɐ.lɐ.u/ | साँवलौ سانولوsā̃valau /sɑ̃ː.ʋɐ.la͡ʊ/ | साँवला سانولاsā̃vlā /sɑ̃ːʋ.lɑː/ | dusky |
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