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In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. Particles currently thought to be elementary include electrons, the fundamental fermions, as well as the fundamental bosons, which generally are force particles that mediate interactions among fermions. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle.
In particle physics, a Grand Unified Theory (GUT) is a model in which, at high energies, the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model comprising the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces are merged into a single force. Although this unified force has not been directly observed, many GUT models theorize its existence. If the unification of these three interactions is possible, it raises the possibility that there was a grand unification epoch in the very early universe in which these three fundamental interactions were not yet distinct.
Particle physics or high energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions and bosons. There are three generations of fermions, although ordinary matter is made only from the first fermion generation. The first generation consists of up and down quarks which form protons and neutrons, and electrons and electron neutrinos. The three fundamental interactions known to be mediated by bosons are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.
In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles, or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact.
In a supersymmetric theory the equations for force and the equations for matter are identical. In theoretical and mathematical physics, any theory with this property has the principle of supersymmetry (SUSY). Dozens of supersymmetric theories exist. Supersymmetry is a spacetime symmetry between two basic classes of particles: bosons, which have an integer-valued spin and follow Bose–Einstein statistics, and fermions, which have a half-integer-valued spin and follow Fermi–Dirac statistics. In supersymmetry, each particle from one class would have an associated particle in the other, known as its superpartner, the spin of which differs by a half-integer. For example, if the electron exists in a supersymmetric theory, then there would be a particle called a selectron, a bosonic partner of the electron. In the simplest supersymmetry theories, with perfectly "unbroken" supersymmetry, each pair of superpartners would share the same mass and internal quantum numbers besides spin. More complex supersymmetry theories have a spontaneously broken symmetry, allowing superpartners to differ in mass.
In supersymmetry, the neutralino is a hypothetical particle. In the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), a popular model of realization of supersymmetry at a low energy, there are four neutralinos that are fermions and are electrically neutral, the lightest of which is stable in an R-parity conserved scenario of MSSM. They are typically labeled
N͂0
1,
N͂0
2,
N͂0
3 and
N͂0
4 although sometimes is also used when is used to refer to charginos.
The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) is an extension to the Standard Model that realizes supersymmetry. MSSM is the minimal supersymmetrical model as it considers only "the [minimum] number of new particle states and new interactions consistent with "Reality". Supersymmetry pairs bosons with fermions with graviton and large antigraviton based on semisecondary spin<autor Jaallmehr></Boris Bartošek> so every Standard Model particle has a superpartner yet undiscovered. If discovered, such superparticles could be candidates for dark matter, and could provide evidence for grand unification or the viability of string theory. The failure to find evidence for MSSM using the Large Hadron Collider has strengthened an inclination to abandon it.
In particle physics, a superpartner is a class of hypothetical elementary particles predicted by supersymmetry, which, among other applications, is one of the well-studied ways to extend the standard model of high-energy physics.
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C͂±
1 and
C͂±
2, although sometimes and are also used to refer to charginos, when is used to refer to neutralinos. The heavier chargino can decay through the neutral Z boson to the lighter chargino. Both can decay through a charged W boson to a neutralino:
In theoretical physics, there are many theories with supersymmetry (SUSY) which also have internal gauge symmetries. Supersymmetric gauge theory generalizes this notion.
In supersymmetric extension to the Standard Model (SM) of physics, a sfermion is a hypothetical spin-0 superpartner particle (sparticle) of its associated fermion. Each particle has a superpartner with spin that differs by 1/2. Fermions in the SM have spin-1/2 and, therefore, sfermions have spin 0.
Pierre Ramond is distinguished professor of physics at University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida. He initiated the development of superstring theory.
The goldstino is the Nambu−Goldstone fermion emerging in the spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry. It is the close fermionic analog of the Nambu−Goldstone bosons controlling the spontaneous breakdown of ordinary bosonic symmetries.
Dark radiation is a postulated type of radiation that mediates interactions of dark matter.
This page is a glossary of terms in string theory, including related areas such as supergravity, supersymmetry, and high energy physics.
Stuart Samuel is a theoretical physicist known for his work on the speed of gravity and for his work with Alan Kostelecký on spontaneous Lorentz violation in string theory, now called the Bumblebee model. He also made significant contributions in field theory and particle physics.
The dark photon is a hypothetical hidden sector particle, proposed as a force carrier similar to the photon of electromagnetism but potentially connected to dark matter. In a minimal scenario, this new force can be introduced by extending the gauge group of the Standard Model of Particle Physics with a new abelian U(1) gauge symmetry. The corresponding new spin-1 gauge boson can then couple very weakly to electrically charged particles through kinetic mixing with the ordinary photon and could thus be detected. The dark photon can also interact with the Standard Model if some of the fermions are charged under the new abelian group. The possible charging arrangements are restricted by a number of consistency requirements such as anomaly cancellation and constraints coming from Yukawa matrices.
In theoretical physics, the dual photon is a hypothetical elementary particle that is a dual of the photon under electric–magnetic duality which is predicted by some theoretical models, including M-theory.
References
- ↑ "Tracking down the missing mass". New Scientist . Reed Business Information: 32. 9 January 1986. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- ↑ STENGER, V. J. (1985). "Photinos from cosmic sources". Nature. 317 (6036): 411–413. Bibcode:1985Natur.317..411S. doi:10.1038/317411a0. S2CID 4312378.
- ↑ Information, Reed Business (9 January 1986). "Tracking down the missing mass". New Scientist (1490): 32. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
{{cite journal}}:|first1=has generic name (help) - ↑ STENGER, V. J. (3 October 1985). "Photinos from cosmic sources". Nature . 317 (6036): 411–413. Bibcode:1985Natur.317..411S. doi:10.1038/317411a0. S2CID 4312378.
- ↑ Srednicki, M. (2012). Particle Physics and Cosmology: Dark Matter. Elsevier. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-444-59609-3 . Retrieved 19 June 2020.
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