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| Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Pseudomonadota |
| Class: | Gammaproteobacteria |
| Order: | Vibrionales |
| Family: | Vibrionaceae |
| Genus: | Photobacterium |
| Species: | |
| Subspecies: | P. d. subsp. piscicida |
| Trinomial name | |
| Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida | |
Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida (previously known as Pasteurella piscicida) is a gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium that causes disease in fish.
Hosts of Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida include:
Pasteurellosis is also described as photobacteriosis (due to the change in the taxonomic position), is caused by this halophilic bacterium. It was first isolated in mortalities occurring in natural populations of white perch ( Morone americanus ) and striped bass (M. saxatilis) in 1963 in Chesapeake Bay, USA (Snieszko et al., 1964)[ incomplete short citation ]. Since 1969, this disease has been one of the most important in Japan, affecting mainly yellowtail ( Seriola quinqueradiata ) (Kusuda & Yamaoka, 1972)[ incomplete short citation ]. From 1990 it has caused economic losses in different European countries including France (Baudin-Laurencin et al., 1991)[ incomplete short citation ], Italy (Ceschia et al., 1991)[ incomplete short citation ], Spain (Toranzo et al., 1991)[ incomplete short citation ], Greece (Bakopoulos et al., 1995)[ incomplete short citation ], Turkey (Canand et al., 1996)[ incomplete short citation ], Portugal (Baptista et al., 1996)[ incomplete short citation ] and Malta (Bakopoulos et al., 1997)[ incomplete short citation ]. Gilthead sea bream ( Sparus aurata ), seabass ( Dicentrarchus labrax ) and sole ( Solea spp.) are the most affected species in Europe Mediterranean countries, as well as hybrid striped bass (M. saxatilis x M. chrysops) in the USA. However, the natural hosts of the pathogen are a wide variety of marine fish (Romalde & Magariños, 1997)[ incomplete short citation ].
This pathology is temperature dependent and occurs usually when water temperatures rise above 18-20 °C. Below this temperature, fish can harbour the pathogen as subclinical infection and become carriers for long time periods (Romalde, 2002)[ incomplete short citation ].
Pastereullosis is also known as pseudotubercullosis because it is characterized by the presence, in the chronic form of the disease, of creamy-white granulomatous nodules or whitish tubercules in several internal organs, composed of masses of bacterial cells, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. The nodules are most prominent in internal viscera, particularly kidney and spleen, and the infection is accompanied by widespread internal necrosis (Evelyn, 1996; Romalde, 2002; Barnes et al., 2005)[ incomplete short citation ]. Anorexia with darkening of the skin as well as focused necrosis of the gills are the only external clinical signs often observed. These lesions are generally missing in the acute form. The disease is difficult to eradicate with antibiotic treatments, and there is evidence that carriers under stressful conditions could suffer from reinfection (Le Breton, 1999).[ incomplete short citation ]
Morphologically, the bacteria is a rod shaped cell, with no motility. Gram negative, with bipolar staining. The presumptive identification of the pathogen is based on standard biochemical tests. In addition, although Ph. damselae subsp. piscicida is not included in the API-20E code index, this miniaturised system can also be useful for its identification, since all strains display the same profile (2005004). Slide agglutination testing using specific antiserum is needed for a confirmative identification of the microorganism (Romalde, 2002).[ incomplete short citation ]
The virulence of the pathogen implies the production of polysaccharide capsular layer, and extracellular products, and is also depending on iron availability (Lopez-Doriga et al., 2000[ incomplete short citation ]). The bacteria spreads via infected phagocytes, mainly macrophages. This spread can be rapid, and lethal effects may occur within a few days of challenge, affecting tissues containing large numbers of the pathogens (Evelyn, 1996).
Salmonella enterica is a rod-headed, flagellate, facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative bacterium and a species of the genus Salmonella. A number of its serovars are serious human pathogens; many of them are serovars of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica.
Listeria monocytogenes is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host's cells and is one of the most virulent foodborne pathogens: 20 to 30% of foodborne listeriosis infections in high-risk individuals may be fatal. In the European Union, listeriosis follows an upward trend that began in 2008, causing 2,161 confirmed cases and 210 reported deaths in 2014, 16% more than in 2013. Listeriosis mortality rates are also higher in the EU than for other foodborne pathogens. Responsible for an estimated 1,600 illnesses and 260 deaths in the United States annually, listeriosis ranks third in total number of deaths among foodborne bacterial pathogens, with fatality rates exceeding even Salmonella spp. and Clostridium botulinum.
The barramundi, Asian sea bass, or giant sea perch, is a species of catadromous fish in the family Latidae of the order Perciformes. The species is widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, spanning the waters of the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania.
Lysogeny, or the lysogenic cycle, is one of two cycles of viral reproduction. Lysogeny is characterized by integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid into the host bacterium's genome or formation of a circular replicon in the bacterial cytoplasm. In this condition the bacterium continues to live and reproduce normally, while the bacteriophage lies in a dormant state in the host cell. The genetic material of the bacteriophage, called a prophage, can be transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division, and later events can release it, causing proliferation of new phages via the lytic cycle. Lysogenic cycles can also occur in eukaryotes, although the method of DNA incorporation is not fully understood. For instance the AIDS viruses can either infect humans lytically, or lay dormant (lysogenic) as part of the infected cells' genome, keeping the ability to return to lysis at a later time. The rest of this article is about lysogeny in bacterial hosts.
Dickeya dadantii is a gram-negative bacillus that belongs to the family Pectobacteriaceae. It was formerly known as Erwinia chrysanthemi but was reassigned as Dickeya dadantii in 2005. Members of this family are facultative anaerobes, able to ferment sugars to lactic acid, have nitrate reductase, but lack oxidases. Even though many clinical pathogens are part of the order Enterobacterales, most members of this family are plant pathogens. D. dadantii is a motile, nonsporing, straight rod-shaped cell with rounded ends, much like the other members of the genus, Dickeya. Cells range in size from 0.8 to 3.2 μm by 0.5 to 0.8 μm and are surrounded by numerous flagella (peritrichous).
Aeromonas hydrophila is a heterotrophic, Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium mainly found in areas with a warm climate. This bacterium can be found in fresh or brackish water. It can survive in aerobic and anaerobic environments, and can digest materials such as gelatin and hemoglobin. A. hydrophila was isolated from humans and animals in the 1950s. It is the best known of the species of Aeromonas. It is resistant to most common antibiotics and cold temperatures and is oxidase- and indole-positive. Aeromonas hydrophila also has a symbiotic relationship as gut flora inside of certain leeches, such as Hirudo medicinalis.
Photobacterium is a genus of gram-negative, oxidase positive and catalase positive bacteria in the family Vibrionaceae. Members of the genus are bioluminescent, that is they have the ability to emit light.
Mycobacterium avium complex is a group of mycobacteria comprising Mycobacterium intracellulare and Mycobacterium avium that are commonly grouped because they infect humans together; this group, in turn, is part of the group of nontuberculous mycobacteria. These bacteria cause Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infections or Mycobacterium avium complex infections in humans. These bacteria are common and are found in fresh and salt water, in household dust and in soil. MAC bacteria usually cause infection in those who are immunocompromised or those with severe lung disease.
Clavibacter michiganensis is an aerobic non-sporulating Gram-positive plant pathogenic actinomycete of the genus Clavibacter. Clavibacter michiganensis has several subspecies. Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis causes substantial economic losses worldwide by damaging tomatoes and potatoes.
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Photobacterium profundum is a deep sea Gammaproteobacterium, belonging to the family Vibrionaceae and genus Photobacterium. Like other members of this genus, P. profundum is a marine organism and has two circular chromosomes. P. profundum is a gram-negative rod with the ability for growth at temperatures from 0 °C to 25 °C and pressures from 0.1 MPa to 70 MPa depending on the strain. It has a requirement for salt, is able to metabolise a wide range of simple and complex carbohydrates and has two flagella systems. Cells are rod shape, 2-4μm long and 0.8-1.0μm wide, with a single unsheathed flagella. This bacterium was originally isolated in 1986 from the Sulu Sea and there are currently 4 cultured wild-type strains of P. profundum,.
Streptococcus equinus is a Gram-positive, nonhemolytic, nonpathogenic, lactic acid bacterium of the genus Streptococcus. It is the principal Streptococcus found in the alimentary canal of a horse, and makes up the majority of the bacterial flora in horse feces. Equivalence with Streptococcus bovis has been contested.
Aeromonas salmonicida is a pathogenic bacterium that severely impacts salmonid populations and other species. It was first discovered in a Bavarian brown trout hatchery by Emmerich and Weibel in 1894. Aeromonas salmonicida's ability to infect a variety of hosts, multiply, and adapt, make it a prime virulent bacterium. A. salmonicida is an etiological agent for furunculosis, a disease that causes sepsis, haemorrhages, muscle lesions, inflammation of the lower intestine, spleen enlargement, and death in freshwater fish populations. It is found worldwide with the exception of South America. The major route of contamination is poor water quality; however, it can also be associated stress factors such as overcrowding, high temperatures, and trauma. Spawning and smolting fish are prime victims of furunculosis due to their immunocompromised state of being.
Streptococcus iniae is a species of Gram-positive, sphere-shaped bacterium belonging to the genus Streptococcus. Since its isolation from an Amazon freshwater dolphin in the 1970s, S. iniae has emerged as a leading fish pathogen in aquaculture operations worldwide, resulting in over US$100M in annual losses. Since its discovery, S. iniae infections have been reported in at least 27 species of cultured or wild fish from around the world. Freshwater and saltwater fish including tilapia, red drum, hybrid striped bass, and rainbow trout are among those susceptible to infection by S. iniae. Infections in fish manifest as meningoencephalitis, skin lesions, and septicemia.
Edwardsiella tarda is a member of the family Hafniaceae. The bacterium is a facultatively anaerobic, small, motile, gram negative, straight rod with flagella. Infection causes Edwardsiella septicemia in channel catfish, eels, and flounder. Edwardsiella tarda is also found in largemouth bass and freshwater species such as rainbow trout. It is a zoonosis and can infect a variety of animals including fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Edwardsiella tarda has also been the cause of periodic infections for various animals within zoos. E. tarda has a worldwide distribution and can be found in pond water, mud, and the intestine of fish and other marine animals. It is spread by carrier animal feces.
Betanodavirus, or nervous necrosis virus (NNV), is a genus of nonenveloped positive-strand RNA viruses in the family Nodaviridae. Member viruses infect fish and cause viral nervous necrosis (VNN) and viral encephalopathy and retinopathy (VER). The genus contains four species.
Tenacibaculum is a Gram-negative and motile bacterial genus from the family of Flavobacteriaceae.
Vibrio tubiashii is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped (0.5 um-1.5 um) marine bacterium that uses a single polar flagellum for motility. It has been implicated in several diseases of marine organisms.
A symbiosome is a specialised compartment in a host cell that houses an endosymbiont in a symbiotic relationship.
Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae is a halophilic gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium. Commonly found in marine environments, P.d. subsp. damselae can cause disease in many species marine wildlife and is an emerging threat in aquaculture. In humans Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae can cause severe infections.The type strain of Photobacterium damselae subsp damselae is ATCC 33539T.
