Names | |
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IUPAC name (5R,9R)-5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12-Octahydro-1,6-secoretinol | |
Systematic IUPAC name (2E,7R,11R)-3,7,11,15-Tetramethylhexadec-2-en-1-ol | |
Identifiers | |
3D model (JSmol) | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
ECHA InfoCard | 100.131.435 |
PubChem CID | |
UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |
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Properties | |
C20H40O | |
Molar mass | 296.539 g·mol−1 |
Density | 0.850 g cm−3 |
Boiling point | 203 to 204 °C (397 to 399 °F; 476 to 477 K) at 10 mmHg |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). |
Phytol (florasol, phytosol) is an acyclic hydrogenated diterpene alcohol that is used as a precursor for the manufacture of synthetic forms of vitamin E [1] and vitamin K1, [2] as well as in the fragrance industry. Its other commercial uses include cosmetics, shampoos, toilet soaps, and detergents, [3] as well as in some cannabis distillates as a diluent or for flavoring. [4] It smells grassy and dominates the aroma of certain green teas. [5] [ failed verification ]
Its worldwide use has been estimated to be approximately 0.1–1.0 metric tons per year. [6]
Refsum disease (also known as adult Refsum disease) is an autosomal recessive disorder that results in the accumulation of toxic stores of phytanic acid in tissues and frequently manifests as a variable combination of peripheral polyneuropathy, cerebellar ataxia, retinitis pigmentosa, anosmia, and hearing loss. [7] Although humans cannot derive phytanic acid from chlorophyll, they can convert free phytol into phytanic acid. Thus, patients with Refsum disease should limit their intake of phytanic acid and free phytol. [8] The amount of free phytol in numerous food products has been reported. [9]
It was found to cause pulmonary hemorrhage and necrosis of nose, throat and lung tissue when exposed in aerosol to Sprague Dawley rats, with no safe dose range being established. A majority of the phytol rats turned out dead or moribund, leading to 2nd-day termination of the 14-day study. [10]
In ruminants, the gut fermentation of ingested plant materials liberates phytol, a constituent of chlorophyll, which is then converted to phytanic acid and stored in fats. [11] In shark liver it yields pristane.
In 2020, Tokyo Smoke, a Canadian cannabis company owned by Canopy Growth at the time; pulled every phytol-containing product from their shelves and issued a 48 hour deadline to suppliers, demanding 'written confirmation' if it was included. A year later, David Heldreth, a former CSO of True Terpenes, a company that still listed it as a product; along with Andrew Freedman, investigated the matter, filing a request under the Access to Information Act to unredact the study causing the product removals. [12] In the same year, the Canadian government published an amendment to Canadian cannabis regulations regarding "flavours in cannabis extracts". [13]
Insects, such as the sumac flea beetle, are reported to use phytol and its metabolites (e.g. phytanic acid) as chemical deterrents against predation. [14] These compounds originate from host plants.
Indirect evidence has been provided that, in contrast to humans, diverse non-human primates can derive significant amounts of phytol from the hindgut fermentation of plant materials. [15] [16]
Phytol and/or its metabolites have been reported to bind to and/or activate the transcription factors PPAR-alpha [17] and retinoid X receptor (RXR). [18] The metabolites phytanic acid and pristanic acid are naturally occurring ligands. [19] In mice, oral phytol induces massive proliferation of peroxisomes in several organs. [20]
Phytol has been investigated for its potential anxiolytic, metabolism-modulating, cytotoxic, antioxidant, autophagy- and apoptosis-inducing, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulating, and antimicrobial effects. [21]
Phytol is likely the most abundant acyclic isoprenoid compound present in the biosphere and its degradation products have been used as biogeochemical tracers in aquatic environments. [22]
A peroxisome (IPA:[pɛɜˈɹɒksɪˌsoʊm]) is a membrane-bound organelle, a type of microbody, found in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles. Frequently, molecular oxygen serves as a co-substrate, from which hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is then formed. Peroxisomes owe their name to hydrogen peroxide generating and scavenging activities. They perform key roles in lipid metabolism and the reduction of reactive oxygen species.
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a disease linked to the X chromosome. It is a result of fatty acid buildup caused by failure of peroxisomal fatty acid beta oxidation which results in the accumulation of very long chain fatty acids in tissues throughout the body. The most severely affected tissues are the myelin in the central nervous system, the adrenal cortex, and the Leydig cells in the testes. The long chain fatty acid buildup causes damage to the myelin sheath of the neurons of the brain, resulting in seizures and hyperactivity. Other symptoms include problems in speaking, listening, and understanding verbal instructions.
In the field of molecular biology, the peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are a group of nuclear receptor proteins that function as transcription factors regulating the expression of genes. PPARs play essential roles in the regulation of cellular differentiation, development, and metabolism, and tumorigenesis of higher organisms.
Zellweger syndrome is a rare congenital disorder characterized by the reduction or absence of functional peroxisomes in the cells of an individual. It is one of a family of disorders called Zellweger spectrum disorders which are leukodystrophies. Zellweger syndrome is named after Hans Zellweger (1909–1990), a Swiss-American pediatrician, a professor of pediatrics and genetics at the University of Iowa who researched this disorder.
Refsum disease is an autosomal recessive neurological disease that results in the over-accumulation of phytanic acid in cells and tissues. It is one of several disorders named after Norwegian neurologist Sigvald Bernhard Refsum (1907–1991). Refsum disease typically is adolescent onset and is diagnosed by above average levels of phytanic acid. Humans obtain the necessary phytanic acid primarily through diet. It is still unclear what function phytanic acid plays physiologically in humans, but has been found to regulate fatty acid metabolism in the liver of mice.
Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) is a phthalate ester having the structural formula C6H4(COOCH2CH 2)2. It is formed by the esterification of isobutanol and phthalic anhydride. This and other phthalates are used as plasticizers due to their flexibility and durability. They are found in many industrial and personal products, such as lacquers, nail polish and cosmetics. DIBP can be absorbed via oral ingestion and dermal exposure. When it comes to excretion, DIBP is first converted into the hydrolytic monoester monoisobutyl phthalate (MIBP). The primary excretory route is urine, with biliary excretion being noted in minor amounts. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than the related compound dibutyl phthalate (DBP).
Phytanic acid is a branched chain fatty acid that humans can obtain through the consumption of dairy products, ruminant animal fats, and certain fish. Western diets are estimated to provide 50–100 mg of phytanic acid per day. In a study conducted in Oxford, individuals who consumed meat had, on average, a 6.7-fold higher geometric mean plasma phytanic acid concentration than did vegans.
Peroxisomal disorders represent a class of medical conditions caused by defects in peroxisome functions. This may be due to defects in single enzymes important for peroxisome function or in peroxins, proteins encoded by PEX genes that are critical for normal peroxisome assembly and biogenesis.
Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase, is found in bacteria and humans and has important roles in regulating fatty acid metabolism and food intake, and it is an attractive target for drug discovery. It is an enzyme associated with Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency. In humans, it is encoded by the MLYCD gene.
Pristanic acid is a terpenoid acid present at micromolar concentrations in the blood plasma of healthy individuals. It is also found in the lipids from many sources such as freshwater sponges, krill, earthworms, whales, human milk fat, bovine depot fat, butterfat or Californian petroleum. It is usually present in combination with phytanic acid. In humans, pristanic acid is obtained from two sources: either directly from the diet or as the alpha oxidation product of phytanic acid. At physiological concentrations pristanic acid is a natural ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). In liver, pristanic acid is degraded by peroxisomal beta oxidation to propionyl-CoA. Together with phytanic acid, pristanic acid accumulates in several inherited disorders such as Zellweger syndrome.
Pipecolic acidemia is a very rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder that is caused by a peroxisomal defect.
Infantile Refsum disease (IRD) is a rare autosomal recessive congenital peroxisomal biogenesis disorder within the Zellweger spectrum. These are disorders of the peroxisomes that are clinically similar to Zellweger syndrome and associated with mutations in the PEX family of genes. IRD is associated with deficient phytanic acid catabolism, as is adult Refsum disease, but they are different disorders that should not be confused.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, also known as the glitazone reverse insulin resistance receptor, or NR1C3 is a type II nuclear receptor functioning as a transcription factor that in humans is encoded by the PPARG gene.
Obesogens are certain chemical compounds that are hypothesised to disrupt normal development and balance of lipid metabolism, which in some cases, can lead to obesity. Obesogens may be functionally defined as chemicals that inappropriately alter lipid homeostasis and fat storage, change metabolic setpoints, disrupt energy balance or modify the regulation of appetite and satiety to promote fat accumulation and obesity.
In enzymology, a phytanoyl-CoA dioxygenase (EC 1.14.11.18) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α), also known as NR1C1, is a nuclear receptor protein functioning as a transcription factor that in humans is encoded by the PPARA gene. Together with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, PPAR-alpha is part of the subfamily of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. It was the first member of the PPAR family to be cloned in 1990 by Stephen Green and has been identified as the nuclear receptor for a diverse class of rodent hepatocarcinogens that causes proliferation of peroxisomes.
α-Methylacyl-CoA racemase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the AMACR gene. AMACR catalyzes the following chemical reaction:
Peroxisome biogenesis factor 1, also known as PEX1, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the PEX1 gene.
Peroxisome assembly factor 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PEX6 gene. PEX6 is an AAA ATPase that localizes to the peroxisome. PEX6 forms a hexamer with PEX1 and is recruited to the membrane by PEX26.
Alpha oxidation (α-oxidation) is a process by which certain branched-chain fatty acids are broken down by removal of a single carbon from the carboxyl end. In humans, alpha-oxidation is used in peroxisomes to break down dietary phytanic acid, which cannot undergo beta-oxidation due to its β-methyl branch, into pristanic acid. Pristanic acid can then acquire CoA and subsequently become beta oxidized, yielding propionyl-CoA.