Pollenia rudis

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Pollenia rudis
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Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Superfamily: Oestroidea
Family: Polleniidae
Genus: Pollenia
Species:
P. rudis
Binomial name
Pollenia rudis
(Fabricius, 1794) [1]
Synonyms

Pollenia rudis, the common cluster fly, is a species of fly in the family Polleniidae. [2] Pollenia rudis is also known as the attic fly, [3] [4] [5] the loft fly, [2] pollenie du lombric [French], [6] and the buckwheat fly. [4] [5] During the autumn and winter months, Pollenia rudis can be found overwintering inside attics or lofts. This sluggish species can be found “clustering” near the interior windows of a warm structure. [4] [7] [8]

Contents

This species is widely distributed throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe and is considered a pest species in structures. [3] P. rudis can be found wherever their host earthworm, the Allolobophora [3] [9] [10] [11] genera (also known by the genus name: Aporrectodea), occurs. These earthworms are typically located in well-drained, silt-loam soil with grass cover. [11] [12] During the summer, P. rudis can be found in fields and open areas. [9] It is only when there is a sudden drop in temperature [9] that the cluster fly shifts to the interior of structures, holes in trees, loose bark, or other crevices and cavities. [12]

History

The common name "cluster fly" was derived from the clustering behavior in adults of this species in attics and lofts. [3] The common name, "buckwheat fly", is derived from the odor of buckwheat honey the species gives off when they are crushed. [4] [5] [9] Pollenia rudis was first documented by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1794. At the time, Fabricius listed the genera and species as Musca rudis. [6] [10] [13] This taxonomy was changed in 1830 by André Jean Baptiste Robineau-Desvoidy to Pollenia rudis. [10] [13] [14] The change of genus to Pollenia (suggested by the pollen of flowers) occurred for Muscids having, among other features, the thorax covered with "down-like clothing". [13] P. rudis has also been previously described under the name of Musca familiaris in 1869 by Dr. T.W. Harris. [6] [13] [14]

The cluster fly is a European species [8] and the date of its introduction into the United States is not known. [7] [13] This species gained particular attention in the United States when Dr. W. H. Dall, of the Smithsonian Institution, published an article in the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum for 1882. Dr. Dall secured specimens of P. rudis for identification. Dr. Dall also documented the species appearance in Geneva, NY thirty years prior to his publication. [7] [13] P. rudis may have been introduced to the United States upon slow sailing vessels in the cooler months of the year that traveled from Europe. [7] This is possible due to the hibernation behaviors of the adult cluster flies to seek shelter for overwintering. The species also could have been transported to North America in the ballast of ships containing soil and the cluster fly host, earthworms. [8]

Characteristics

Distinctive markings

All flies can be identified from other species by certain characteristics. They can differ in thoracic coloring, basicosta coloring, and spiracle coloring. Size and shape are aids in identification. Pollenia rudis eggs are oblong-shaped. They are very small and white. The P. rudis larvae are white with posterior spiracles. [15] The adult Pollenia rudis looks like most of the other Pollenia species such as pallida, and dasylpoda. They are dark gray with checkered black and silvery-black abdomens. A newly emerged fly has many golden hairs on its thorax which may be lost throughout the life of the fly. The stripes on the thorax are not as prominent as on the house fly and the tips of the wings overlap when at rest. [9] The cluster fly is slightly larger than a house fly at 9.525-12.7mm (3/8-1/2 inch) long. [16] The similarities between pallida and rudis are seen in the female specimens. P. pallida has a broad, flattened facial keel. P.dasyloda has a black head with yellow tint on the frons. The basicosta can be found in many colors ranging from yellow to light brown. Some specimens have black basicosta. The posterior spiracle ranges from yellow in color to light brown. The number of bristles and setae found on this species are characteristic of this species only. There are 2-3 rows of setae located on the thoracic section and 6-8 strong frontal bristles (bristles are thick setae). [17] They also have aristate antennae. [18]

Behavior

The behavior of the P. rudis fly varies with the annual seasons and conditions of the day. During the summer, on a sunny day these flies can be found without much trouble. When it is cold these flies tend to find somewhere warm and dry. They are mainly found in forest or wooded areas during the cold season. The flies tend to frequent dry areas because of their aristae antennae. The aristae are sensitive to minute temperature and pressure changes. During the winter, adult P. rudis' have a habit of overwintering. This ritual begins when the weather starts to get cold. The flies will inhabit the old tunnels created by past insects. They can also be found in old bird nests, under the bark of trees, or in homes. P. rudis will overwinter until spring, living off of its own fat. [15]

Food sources

Earthworms are a major source of food for Pollenia rudis. The main species of earthworm that these cluster flies infect are Aporrectoda caliginosa, Aporrectoda chlorotica, Eisenia lucens, Lumbricus rubellus, and Lumbricus terrestris. Immediately after the larvae hatch, they begin looking for worms. The first instar larvae eat their way through the integument section of the earthworm’s epidermis. While feeding, the P. rudis larvae leave the spiracles outside of the earthworm. Inside the earthworm, the larvae feed until they are ready to pupate. [19] The adult P. rudis are, in most cases, herbivores. They feed on many types of organic matter. Plant sap, fruit, flowers and feces are common energy pathways for P. rudis. P. rudis is also attracted to malt extract, acetyl acetate and the proteins in animal meat. [18]

Predators

Entomophthora muscae or Entomophthora schizophorae is a fungus that commonly infects adult flies. This fungus causes disease within the fly resulting in a swollen abdomen. This swollen abdomen makes the wings and legs spread apart, ultimately causing the fly to have trouble flying. After some time with this disease, a P. rudis adult will lose the ability to fly. Without flight, this fly has no way of protecting itself from predators. The main predator of P. rudis larvae is the sphecid wasps. These wasps will sting the fly and inject some poison. Once the fly has died, the wasp will feed the fly to their young. There are also other generalist predators of this fly, such as ants, birds, and certain plants. [20]

Life cycle

Europe

There are very specific differences between the life cycle of Pollenia rudis in Europe and North America. [21] In Europe, it takes 10–12 months for an egg to fully develop into an adult, resulting in one generation per year. [21] P. rudis adults of European origin copulate in the autumn , leaving their first instar larvae in a dormant state in the bodies of earthworms over the winter. [2] The larvae will then molt twice over approximately 20 days and then pupate outside of the host. [21] Usually, the pupal stage lasts from 32–45 days, but at high temperatures (e.g. 27°C) the pupal stage can be as short as 7 days. [2]

North America

In North America, P. rudis eggs generally require 27–39 days to fully develop into an adult. [21] In Canada, 25–30 days are required when the temperature is 23°C, and 11-14 of these days are spent in the pupal stage. Cluster flies in North America overwinter in their adult stage, and copulation takes place in the spring. There are three species in the rudis species complex of North America, and the life cycle of each species may differ. The variety of species in North America may account for the discrepancies between European and North American cluster flies life cycles. [2]

Female cluster flies preferentially oviposit eggs in humid areas with dense surface vegetation and high soil moisture. [22] Each egg is either deposited by itself or in a small cluster of about seven eggs. [21] In total, a female cluster fly will lay an average of 100-130 eggs by ovipositing a small group, then crawling or flying some distance before ovipositing each subsequent group of eggs. Once the larvae hatch, they burrow into the soil by following natural pore spaces, such as holes near plant stems or paths that earthworms have already created. By randomly moving through these pores, P. rudis larvae find their host worms. A larva is prompted to penetrate an earthworm when it senses “penetration inducing factor,” a substance that is present in the slime and coelomic fluid of an earthworm. [2] [22] The larvae then use their mandibles to penetrate the dorsal side of a worm. It is important that they find their host quickly, because larvae must penetrate a worm within three days in order to survive. [22]

More than one larva can penetrate a single earthworm, and two or more larvae can share a penetration site. [22] Once the host worm begins to decompose and is no longer useful to the larvae, the larvae can either leave to find another host or move to a less decomposed section further down on its host worm. If a first instar larva decides to move to another host, it must penetrate its new host quickly in order to survive. Towards the end of the first instar stage and into the second and third instar stages, the larvae are able to survive longer separations from their hosts. Usually, the first and second instars act as internal parasites while the third instar can parasitize the host and feed on the surface of the host. Currently there are no reports of P. rudis reducing earthworm populations or causing horticultural problems. [2]

Overwintering

Adult cluster flies in North America are slow-flying insects that are active during warmer months. [21] Once the weather becomes much cooler, P. rudis will seek shelter, usually in homes and buildings. The flies have also been documented staying in tunnels made by beetles in timber and in animal burrows. Before overwintering, cluster fly’s abdomens are full of fat globules that may be left over from its larval fat bodies. When spring begins and the flies emerge, they appear shrunken because their fat was used up during the winter. [2]

Human importance

Pest status

Pollenia rudis is most commonly known for being a household nuisance. The first reports of cluster flies as pests in homes occurred as early as the nineteenth century, and these flies continue to cause problems today. [2] Cluster flies tend to enter homes and buildings in large masses in late summer or early autumn to seek shelter for the winter months. [23] They possess the ability to squeeze their bodies through any exterior crevices of a home, such as cracks around windows and doors, air conditioning vents, screening vents, and loosely hung siding. Once cluster flies enter a home, they usually hibernate in inaccessible areas between walls and in ceilings until spring when they emerge and seek access to the outdoors. [23] P. rudis is extremely troublesome to home and business owners, but does not cause any true damage to home structures, textiles, foods, or humans. [8] Piles of dead flies left in the walls can sometimes lead to secondary infestations of carpet or larder beetles and rodents. [5]

Control methods

Attempting to control the cluster fly by controlling their earthworm host is not recommended or effective since flies may originate from more than a mile away from the infestation site. [9] Once Pollenia rudis enters a home, it is almost impossible to kill enough of the flies to fully eradicate them. In order to prevent cluster flies from entering a house, all exterior cracks and openings should be caulked or sealed. This includes (sealing) light fixtures, electrical outlets, windows, and baseboards. Persistent use of insecticides has also been shown to reduce fly numbers if sprayed on the exterior of a home. [23] However, these methods are not guaranteed for preventing infestations. When cluster flies do invade the home, they are extremely difficult to exterminate. Trying to kill the flies with a fly swatter leads to greasy spots on walls and upholstery as well as a lingering smell of buckwheat honey. [5] Once spring arrives the flies will try to leave on their own in order to lay eggs, but many times they enter other living areas of the home instead. [23] Vacuum cleaners and aerosol insecticides may be used to control visible, sluggish flies, but professional extermination is the most reliable method for eliminating an infestation. [12]

Importance in forensic entomology

Unlike the majority of blow flies in the family Calliphoridae, Pollenia rudis does not play a large role in the medico-criminal subfield of forensic entomology. While most blow flies are attracted to rotting or decomposing matter, P. rudis is solely parasitic on earthworms and is unable to complete larval development on carrion. [24] This unique characteristic makes it uncommon to see this particular blowfly near forensic investigations. However, the urban subfield of forensic entomology has been closely monitoring P. rudis because of its tendency to infest buildings and its status as a potential disease vector. Urban entomology, which deals with the insects that affect humans and their immediate environment, [25] is responsible for investigating economic issues and civil proceedings involving arthropods. There have been several economically hampering cases of P. rudis infestation around the world. For example, in New Zealand an entire city’s water reservoir tank was drained due to high levels of fecal coliform bacteria produced by mass amounts of cluster flies residing in the tank. [2] Due to cases like these, scientists have investigated the association of Pollenia rudis and its disease vector capability. In 1973, a massive infestation of cluster flies in a German hospital triggered an investigation of the relationship between P. rudis and bacteria pathogen transmission. [26] Careful examination of the flies revealed P. rudis is only capable of transmitting bacteria that causes opportunistic infections. These results indicate that “mass infestations of cluster flies occurring in sensitive areas, especially in hospitals, may cause a low, but not neglectable health threat due to mechanical transmission of bacterial pathogens.” [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calliphoridae</span> Family of insects in the Diptera order

The Calliphoridae are a family of insects in the order Diptera, with almost 1,900 known species. The maggot larvae, often used as fishing bait, are known as gentles. The family is known to be polyphyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent taxa, some of which are occasionally accorded family status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cluster fly</span> Genus of flies

Cluster flies are flies of the genus Pollenia in the family Polleniidae. Unlike the more familiar blow flies, such as the bluebottle genus Phormia, they are completely harmless to human health because they do not lay eggs in human food. They are parasitic on earthworms; the females lay their eggs near earthworm burrows, and the larvae then feed on the worms. But the biology of this group is relatively poorly known and a few have been recorded from other hosts including caterpillars and bees.

<i>Chrysomya putoria</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya putoria, also known as the tropical African latrine blowfly, is a fly species belonging to the blowfly family, Calliphoridae.C. putoria is native to Africa and has recently spread to the Americas. These flies pose significant health risks, especially due to their close association with human settlements. Adult flies can carry pathogens, while larvae may cause myiasis by growing and feeding on the flesh of domestic animals and humans. Other myiasis-causing flies in the same genus are C. bezziana and C. megacephala. C. putoria and other flies that feed on decomposing tissue are used as important tools in forensic entomology to establish the post-mortem interval, or the time elapsed since death.

<i>Chrysomya</i> Genus of flies

Chrysomya is an Old World blow fly genus of the family Calliphoridae. The genus Chrysomya contains a number of species including Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya megacephala. The term “Old World blow fly” is a derivative of both the associated family, Calliphoridae, and the belief that the genus Chrysomya originated in Asia and migrated to North America only relatively recently. Chrysomya’s primary importance to the field of medico-criminal forensic entomology is due to the genus’ reliable life cycle, allowing investigators to accurately develop a postmortem interval. Chrysomya adults are typically metallic colored with thick setae on the meron and plumose arista. The name comes from the word chrysos, meaning “golden” in reference to the metallic sheen of the genus’ species, and -mya, a derivation from the word myia, meaning “fly”.

<i>Cochliomyia</i> Genus of insects

Cochliomyia is a genus in the family Calliphoridae, known as blowflies, in the order Diptera. Cochliomyia is commonly referred to as the New World screwworm flies, as distinct from Old World screwworm flies. Four species are in this genus: C. macellaria, C. hominivorax, C. aldrichi, and C. minima. C. hominivorax is known as the primary screwworm because its larvae produce myiasis and feed on living tissue. This feeding causes deep, pocket-like lesions in the skin, which can be very damaging to the animal host. C. macellaria is known as the secondary screwworm because its larvae produce myiasis, but feed only on necrotic tissue. Both C. hominivorax and C. macellaria thrive in warm, tropical areas.

<i>Chrysomya rufifacies</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya rufifacies is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae, and is most significant in the field of forensic entomology due to its use in establishing or altering post mortem intervals. The common name for the species is the hairy maggot blow fly, and it belongs to the genus Chrysomya, which is commonly referred to as the Old World screwworms. This genus includes other species such as Chrysomya putoria and Chrysomya bezziana, which are agents of myiasis. C. rufifacies prefers very warm weather and has a relatively short lifecycle. It is widely distributed geographically and prefers to colonize large carcasses over small ones. The species commonly has a greenish metallic appearance and is important medically, economically, and forensically.

<i>Lucilia illustris</i> Species of insect

Lucilia illustris is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae, commonly known as a blow fly. Along with several other species, L. illustris is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. Lucilia illustris is typically 6–9 mm in length and has a metallic blue-green thorax. The larvae develop in three instars, each with unique developmental properties. The adult fly typically will feed on flowers, but the females need some sort of carrion protein in order to breed and lay eggs.

<i>Phormia regina</i> Species of fly

Phormia regina, the black blow fly, belongs to the blow fly family Calliphoridae and was first described by Johann Wilhelm Meigen.

<i>Chrysomya megacephala</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya megacephala, more commonly known as the oriental latrine fly or oriental blue fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae (blowflies). It is a warm-weather fly with a greenish-blue metallic box-like body. The fly infests corpses soon after death, making it important to forensic science. This fly is implicated in some public health issues; it can cause accidental myiasis, and also infects fish and livestock.

<i>Chrysomya bezziana</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya bezziana, also known as the Old World screwworm fly or screwworm, is an obligate parasite of mammals. Obligate parasitic flies require a host to complete their development. Named to honor the Italian entomologist Mario Bezzi, this fly is widely distributed in Asia, tropical Africa, India, and Papua New Guinea. The adult can be identified as metallic green or blue with a yellow face and the larvae are smooth, lacking any obvious body processes except on the last segment.

Compsomyiops callipes, previously known as Paraluclia wheeleri, is a member of the blowfly family Calliphoridae. It is a warm weather fly that can be found in southwestern parts of the United States and parts of South America. This species can be identified by its chaeotaxy, metallic blue color, club-shaped palp, and brown calypters.

<i>Cynomya cadaverina</i> Species of fly

Cynomya cadaverina, also known as the shiny blue bottle fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae, which includes blow flies as well as bottle flies. In recent years, this family has become a forensically important facet in many medicocriminal investigations in the growing field of forensic entomology. C. cadaverina is specifically important in determining a post-mortem interval, as well as other important factors.

<i>Lucilia mexicana</i> Species of insect

Lucilia mexicana is a species of blow fly of the family Calliphoridae, one of many species known as a green bottle fly. Its habitat range extends from southwestern North America to Brazil. L. mexicana is typically 6–9 mm in length with metallic blue-green coloring. This species is very similar in appearance to L. coeruleiviridis, the primary difference being that L. mexicana has two or more complete rows of post-ocular setae. L. mexicana has the potential to be forensically important in the stored-products and medicocriminal fields, but more research is needed for the fly to be used as evidence in criminal investigations.

<i>Calliphora livida</i> Species of fly

Calliphora livida is a member of the family Calliphoridae, the blow flies. This large family includes the genus Calliphora, the "blue bottle flies". This genus is important in the field of forensic entomology because of its value in post-mortem interval estimation.

<i>Lucilia coeruleiviridis</i> Species of fly

Lucilia coeruleiviridis, formerly Phaenecia coeruleiviridis, is commonly known as a green bottle fly, because of its metallic blue-green thorax and abdomen. L. coeruleiviridis was first discovered by French entomologist Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart in 1855. It belongs to the family Calliphoridae and is one of many forensically important Diptera, as it is often found on decaying substances. L. coeruleiviridis is one of the most ubiquitous blow fly species in the southeastern United States, particularly in the spring and fall months.

<i>Protophormia terraenovae</i> Species of fly

Protophormia terraenovae is commonly called northern blowfly, blue-bottle fly or blue-assed fly. It is distinguished by its deep blue coloration and large size and is an important species throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This fly is notable for its economic effect as a myiasis pest of livestock and its antibiotic benefits in maggot therapy. Also of interest is P. terraenovae’s importance in forensic investigations: because of their temperature-dependent development and their prominent presence on corpses, the larvae of this species are useful in minimum post-mortem interval (mPMI) determination.

Calliphora latifrons is a species of blue bottle fly.

Calliphora loewi is part of the family Calliphoridae, bottle flies and blowflies, and in the genus Calliphora, blue bottle flies. The genus can be deceiving since C. loewi is not blue. Though this species is rare, it can play an important part in forensic entomology, spreading disease, and decomposing carrion. The life cycle of C. loewi is similar to the life cycle of the genus Calliphora. Since this species is rare there has not been very much research done with this species.

Cordylobia rodhaini, also known as the Lund's fly, derived its common name from captain Lund, who was the first European to show symptoms of the disease caused by the larvae of the same fly. Lund’s fly belongs to the genus Cordylobia, flies from the family Calliphoridae. The larvae of the Lund’s fly are parasites of thinned-skinned mammals, especially the Gambian rat, mona monkey and small antelopes and are only accidental parasites of humans. The adult flies feeds on rotting fruits, vegetables and animal feces, and are most abundant in the wet season. Like many tropical insects they are most active in the dark periods and have the greatest activity early in the morning and late in the evening while resting typically between 8am to 5pm. The Lund’s fly are largely confined to tropical Africa, especially the rainforest areas in Sub-Saharan Africa. As a result of human migration, though, the parasitic infections they cause have been recorded in other continents, including Europe and Asia.

<i>Pollenia vagabunda</i> Species of fly

Pollenia vagabunda is a species of blow fly in the family Polleniidae. It is widespread in Europe and can be found on carrion, although not associated with any specific stages of decomposition. P. vagabunda has also been found in North America, first being discovered there in 1958, with a range from the east coast to British Columbia.

References

  1. 1 2 Fabricius, J.C. (1794). Entomologia systematica emendata et aucta. Vol. 4. Hafniae [=Copenhagen]: C. G. Proft. pp. [6] + 472 + [5] pp.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Capinera, John; Heath, Allen. “Cluster Fly, Pollenia rudis (Fabricius) and P. pseudorudis Rognes (Diptera: Calliphoridae) ” Encyclopedia of Entomology: Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008. pg 932-935
  3. 1 2 3 4 Ridge, Gale E. "Cluster Flies Pollenia rudis (Fabricius) The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station 2007-04-06 http://www.ct.gov/CAES/cwp/view.asp?a=2815&q=376718 Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Cluster Flies" Cornell Cooperative Extension Nassau County 2003-01 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-28. Retrieved 2009-03-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Lyon, William F. "Cluster and Face Flies" Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet "Cluster and Face Flies, HYG-2110-94". Archived from the original on 2009-01-31. Retrieved 2009-03-24. Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  6. 1 2 3 "Pollenia rudis (Fabricius, 1794" ITIS Report 2003 https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=151647 Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Howard, Leland O. “An Account of its Dangerous Activities and the Means of Destroying it” The House Fly – Disease Carrier, 1911. pg 236-240.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Jacobs, Steven B. "Cluster Flies" Penn State Entomological Notes 2003-03 http://www.ento.psu.edu/Extension/factsheets/clusterflies.htm Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Alm, Steven R. "Cluster Fly" University of Rhode Island GreenShare Factsheets 1999 Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  10. 1 2 3 Rognes, Knut. “The Taxonomy of the Pollenia rudis species-group in the Holarctic Region (Diptera: Calliphoridae)” Systematic Entomology, 1987. Vol. 12, pg 475-502.
  11. 1 2 "Cluster Fly" Varment Guard 2007 http://www.varmentguard.com/pestlibrary/CLUSTER%20FLY.pdf Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  12. 1 2 3 Dille, James F.; Kirby, Clay A. "Cluster Flies" The University of Maine Pest Management 2008-19-08http://pmo.umext.maine.edu/factsht/cluster.htm Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lintner, J. A. “Pollenia rudis (Fabr.). The Cluster Fly.” Ninth Report on the Injurious and Other Insects of the State of New York For the Year 1892, 1893. pg 309-314.
  14. 1 2 Riley, C. V. “The ‘Cluster Fly’” American Naturalist, January 1883. Vol. CVII No. 1, pg 82-83.
  15. 1 2 Richards P. G. Morrison F. O. “A Summary of Published information on the cluster fly Pollenia rudis (Fabricus) (Diptera: Calliphoridae).” Phytoprotection. 53(2-3). 1972. 103-111. Pg 105.
  16. ↑ Cervenka, Valerie J.; Hahn, Jeffrey "Fall Nuisance Flies" University of Minnesota Extension 2008 http://www.extension.umnedu/distribution/housingandclothing/DK7579.html%5B%5D Retrieved on 2009-03-17.
  17. ↑ Mihályi F. “Contribution to the knowledge of the Genus Pollenia R.-D. (Diptera: Calliphoridae).” Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 22(3-4). 1976: 327-333. Pg. 332.
  18. 1 2 Richards P G. Morrison F O. “A Summary of Published information on the cluster fly Pollenia rudis(Fabricus) (Diptera: Calliphoridae).” Phytoprotection. 53(2-3). 1972. 103-111. Pg 104
  19. ↑ Houskova L. Rozkosny R. “Diptera as Bioregulators of Earthworms in Southern Moravia Czechoslovakia. Scripta Facultatis Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Purkynianae Brunensis. 19(5-6). 1989. 213-222. Pg.214.
  20. ↑ Richards P G. Morrison F O. “A Summary of Published information on the cluster fly Pollenia rudis (Fabricus) (Diptera: Calliphoridae).” Phytoprotection. 53(2-3). 1972. 103-111. Pg 106.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thomson AJ (1973) The biology of Pollenia rudis, the cluster fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae). I. Host location of first-instar larvae. Can Entomol 105:335–341.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Thomson AJ, Davies DM (1973) The biology of Pollenia rudis, the cluster fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae). II. Larval feeding behaviour and host specificity. Can Entomol 105:985–990
  23. 1 2 3 4 Howard, Russell "Insects and Arthropods" Diagnostic Services at Michigan State 2006 http://www.pestid.msu.edu/InsectsArthropods/ClusterFlyPolleniarudis/tabid/254/Default.aspx
  24. ↑ Greenberg, Bernard, and Kunich, John C. Entomology and the Law. 1st ed. Cambridge UP, 2002
  25. ↑ Byrd, Dr. J.H. "What is Forensic Entomology" Forensics Entomology 2009 http://www.forensicentomology.com/definition.htm Archived 2018-02-14 at the Wayback Machine
  26. 1 2 Faulde, M; Sobe, D; Burghardt, H; Wermter, R. “Hospital infestation by the cluster fly, Pollenia rudis sensu stricto Fabricius 1794 (Diptera: Calliphoridae), and its possible role in transmission of bacterial pathogens in Germany.” International Journal of Hygiene & Environmental Health. 203(3):201-4, 2001 Mar.
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