Self-Defence of the Polish Nation (Polish: Samoobrona Narodu Polskiego, SNP), later Defence of the Polish Nation (Polish: Obrona Narodu Polskiego, ONP) was a minor political party in Poland. The party registered on 15 July 2005 and was a split of 70 members from the left-wing agrarian socialistSelf-Defence of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Samoobrona Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, SRP, referred to as Samoobrona), though the party already existed as a dissident faction faction within the party since 2003.[3] The party tried to participate in the 2006 Polish local elections and act as a spoiler party against Samoobrona, but the Polish court struck the party off the ballot because of its name and logo being too similar to SRP. In response, the party changed its name to "Defence of the Polish Nation" in October 2006.[9]
The Self-Defence of the Polish Nation was a right-nationalist split from Samoobrona and was found in response to the "social-democratisation" of the party, which transitioned from a populist protest party to an established, staunchly left-wing one.[8] The SNP already held its own party convention in 2003, where it protested Samoobrona's decision to work together with social-democratic Labour Union and Democratic Left Alliance, but it remained a faction within the party until formally seceding and registering a separate political entity in 2005.[3] It was the first of many splits within Samoobrona that occurred between 2005 and 2007, such as Patriotic Self-Defence and Self-Defence Social Movement.[10] After the change name in 2006, the party would participate in subsequent Polish elections and win a marginal number of votes. It became inactive in early 2020s and was dissolved and deregistered in early 2023.[5]
History
Self-Defence of the Polish Nation first appeared in 2003, when 70 members of Samoobrona convened in Katowice. The convention criticized the confidence and supply agreement that Samoobrona reached with Labour Union and Democratic Left Alliance, two centre-left social-democratic parties. Convention members argued that vote of confidence for Leszek Miller was against the will of the portion of the party, as seven Samoobrona MPs were absent during the vote. However, no formal secession was declared from Samoobrona, and the convention merely declared itself an autonomous faction within the party.[3]
Samoobrona was founded in 1992 and was not a conventional political party, but rather described itself as "peasants’ social movement emerging on the basis of peasants’ discontent". It steadily rose in popularity as an anti-establishment movement protesting the economic shock therapy and neoliberal Balcerowicz Plan, which carried out extensive free-market reforms in Poland and dissolved the socialist economy and welfare state. As the reforms led to numerous protests, road blocks and hunger strikes, Samoobrona rapidly developed through direct and grass-roots actions, and got involved in Polish trade union movement.[11] Samoobrona positioned itself as an anti-establishment movement, running "against neoliberalism, against capitalism, against ruling elites, against the urban intellectual bias of Polish politics."[12]
The party represented a big tent of the 'losers' of the capitalist transition, and its program mixed socioeconomic issues with moral ones. Amongst the early demands of the party was an economic system that would replace materialism and consumerism with a closer relationship with the natural environment, preservation of small family farms, and humane treatment of animals. Samoobrona promoted its concept of "econology", which it described as the introduction of social ethics and morality into economic thinking. Effectively the party called for a 'just' economy based on agrarian, ethical and anti-capitalist principles, which it more strictly formulated in its 1993 program, which stated: "We want a Poland, in which there will not be such drastic material differences: no so-called ‘ocean of destitution’ with tiny ‘islands’ of wealth and well-being."[11] Capitalism introduced in Poland in the 1990s was denounced by the party as "economic genocide".[11]
Despite the class-based rhetoric of the party, the far-left character of Samoobrona was not apparent to some of its supporters, and above its programmatic stances it represented a 'fresh wind' in Polish politics that stood above the post-communist and anti-communist political divide that defined 1990s and early 2000s Polish politics. Because of this, the party had a diverse coalition of supports, including not only socialists, but also the military and nationalists, who shared the party's aversion to the liberal international order that was now also present in Poland. Samoobrona tolerated the nationalist wings of its supporters as it pursued a strategy of developing a wide spectrum of interests, appealing to workers, the unemployed, pensioners and the poor, resulting in the party becoming a "loose organization that engaged in a non-conventional, protest profile"; the main ideology of the party was simply described as “healthy [economical] development, the care for disfavoured people and the national interest."[13]
However, Samoobrona eschwed its vague position in favour of developing a clearly defined far-left ideology in 1999. That year, the leader of the party Andrzej Lepper called for a "worker-peasant alliance" and increasingly marginalized and dismissed the nationalist wing of the party.[13] In February 1999, Lepper also called for return to socialism during his presidential campaign, arguing that it had "not yet reached full maturity".[14] International media would describe Lepper as "Polish Hugo Chávez", comparing and finding similarities with their socialist and populist rhetoric.[15] Samoobrona itself was described as a mixture of "social Catholicism and Polish socialism".[16] After its triumph in the 2001 Polish parliamentary election, the far-left character of the party was also noted by political scientists - Andrzej Antoszewski described the party as a neocommunist party with unique ethical socialist and Catholic socialist characteristics - the party's program from 2001 called for 'economic revival' and the abandonment of "satanistic values" defined as "pursuit of profit, getting rich, cruel competition, degenerate consumerism, total commercialisation and disdain for the weak"; capitalism was described the party as "fiscal terror" imposed on the poor.[17]
By mid-2000s, Samoobrona came to be considered to be on the extreme end of left-wing politics in Poland, and its voters were found to be more left-wing than those of any other political party in Poland, and of non-voters as well.[18] Termed "social-democratization", this transformation of Samoobrona from a broad protest party to a far-left established formation further alienated Self-Defence of the Polish Nation, which already declared itself a dissident faction within the party in 2003.[8]
The party held its second convention in Katowice in June 2005, this time as a separate, registered party. The head of the new party, elected as the chairman of the party's "supreme committee", was Tadeusz Mazanek. Mazanek was elected councillor of the Silesian Voivodship Assembly from the Samoobrona list in 2002 Polish local elections, and ran on the party list in the 2001 Polish parliamentary election, but did not win a seat. He became known amongst Silesian circles in 2000, when he led a nationalist demonstration through the streets of Katowice. Other party founders included Antoni Waleczek, Józef Pankiewicz, Czesław Kiernozek and Stefan Besz. By 2006, the party had three provincial representatives in regional sejmiks - these were Tadeusz Mazanek and Antoni Waleczek in the Silesian assembly, and Stefan Besz in the Opole assembly.[2] Mazanek registered the party on 15 June 2005, two years after its first convention in July 2003.[4]
In late 2005, the party published a public announcement in which it justified its decision to separate from Samoobrona, stating: "Andrzej Lepper's party Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, which grew on a wave of social discontent, failed its rank-and-file members, so we decided to establish a new political formation called Self-Defence of the Polish Nation." The SNP then held another meeting in village of Chróścielów, where it elected its party council as well - Stefan Besz became the chairman of the party's council in the Opole regional assembly, and Tomasz Bedryj was elected his deputy. Jan Siniakiewicz became the secretary of the party, and Elżbieta Zapotoczna was elected the new party's treasurer. The party encouraged "all those who are not indifferent to the fate of Poland to join and actively work in the field structures of the newly established party".[1]
In the 2005 Polish parliamentary election, SNP member Mirosław Chandrała ran for the Sejm in the Łódź constituency from the list of the All-Polish Civic Coalition (Polish: Ogólnopolska Koalicja Obywatelska), a minor electoral formation that called for the introduction of social market economy in Poland. He received 38 votes. In the presidential elections of 2005, the party supported Polish diaspora activists Jan Pyszko, who was the party leader of the Organisation of the Polish Nation - Polish League, a political Catholic that represented Polish minority interests abroad. The SNP also consolidated its position by absorbing the "Self-Defence of Merchants and Traders Association" (Polish: Samoobrona Kupców i Handlowców), which operated in opposition to Samoobrona in Lublin and had 500 members, who decided to disband the party and join the SNP. The party considered running together with the Organisation of the Polish Nation - Polish League for 2005 election, but this plan never materialized.[4]
By 2006, the party had 2,000 members.[6] The party leadership decided to participate in the 2006 Polish local elections and challenge Samoobrona for its seats in local councils. According to a poll from August 2005, the party polled 6% for parliamentary election and would enter the Sejm with 25 seats. For comparison, the parent party Samoobrona who formed an alliance with democratic socialist National Party of Retirees and Pensioners polled 8%, and would gain 44 seats.[19] However, Samoobrona accused the SNP of trying to impersonate the party, and filed a lawsuit against the SNP which it accused of trying to disorient the voters with similar name and program.[2] Shortly before the 2006 election, Polish court ruled in favour of Samoobrona and struck Self-Defence of the Polish Nation off the ballot for being a spoiler party.[9] While the party was not allowed to field its own lists, it endorsed independent candidates, such as Roman Chomicki representing the "Electoral Committee of the Movement for the Elimination of Unemployment" (Polish: Komitet Wyborczy Wyborców Ruch Likwidacji Bezrobocia), who won under 1% of the popular vote.[20]
SNP was also included in a corruption scandal in Samoobrona, as several of the SNP members accusing Samoobrona of using a "pay to run" system which demanded candidates to pay the party in order to be able to run on the party's electoral list. This accusation was lodged by Self-Defence of the Polish Nation against Samoobrona MP Alfred Budner, who was to demand money from local activists in order to secure a place on the party's electoral lists. In 2007, Bunder himself left Samoobrona and joined the newly-formed Self-Defence Rebirth.[21] Self-Defence Rebirth wanted to consolidate Samoobrona splinters under its banner and reached out to all minor parties with "Self-Defence" in their name, including the SNP.[10] However, the cooperation was never realized as Self-Defence Rebirth declared that it will be "as left-wing as Samoobrona was", therefore consolidating its nature as a left-wing splinter rather than a right-wing one.[22]
The party continued to participate in elections after 2006. In the 2007 Polish parliamentary election, the party fielded a single candidate for the Senate in Bielsko-Biała constituency - Antoni Waleczek. Waleczek received 12,908 votes in total and came last out of 7 candidates for the seat. In the 2014 Polish local elections, the party's leader Tadeusz Mazanek was a candidate of the "Outraged " (Polish: Oburzeni) committee for the Silesian Sejmik, with the committee's lists also including people associated with minor conservative parties. In the 2018 Polish local elections, Mazenek was the first candidate of a minor political party known as the Labour Party in Katowice council. However, he received 0.3% of the vote and failed to gain a seat. The party did not participate in any elections after 2019 and stopped submitting financial reports to Polish courts aftwerwards. The party was then formally deregistered and dissolved in February 2023.[5]
Party leadership
Leader:
Tadeusz Mazanek
Co-founders:
Antoni Waleczek
Józef Pankiewicz
Czesław Kiernozek
Stefan Besz
Secretary:
Jan Siniakiewicz
Treasurer:
Elżbieta Zapotoczna
Ideology
The party was described as a right-wing nationalist split of the Samoobrona party.[8] It split from Samoobrona over the party's decision to cooperate with social-democratic parties and increasingly apparent far-left nature of Samoobrona.[3] The party itself claimed to continue the legacy of Samoobrona, and described itself as "patriotic" and "of peasant origin".[6] This referred not only to the agrarian character of Samoobrona, but also echoed Samoobrona's statements - in 2005, Andrzej Lepper described Samoobrona as "the patriotic left, a progressive left, modern, tolerant, without any extremes or deviations".[23] The SNP was anti-capitalist and followed the moralist rhetoric of Samoobrona, although devoid of left-wing slogans; Self-Defence of the Polish Nation argued that "there has been a degeneration of social and economic life in the country [of Poland]" and warned: "If the capitalists do not stop plundering us then a serious social crisis could occur."[6]
The agrarian, nationalist and anti-capitalist of the party was stressed in an overwhelming majority of its statements. The party that the SNP seceded from, Samoobrona, was accused of "having forgotten the countryside". The SNP argued that both Samoobrona and the Polish economy are controlled by "latifundists" and called for redistributive measures that would nationalize the property of large landowners and redistribute it to the poor, envisioning small and family farms to be the ideal of Polish agricultural organisation.[24] To this end, the party called for the reversal of privatisations carried out by the Polish government, calling them "unclean" and proposing to instate death penalty as a punishment for corruption.[25]
The party had a national, Catholic, conservative and Eurosceptic policies, and it advocated Poland's exit from the European Union and NATO.[7] It called for an ambitious program of nationalization of Poland, which the party advertised by slogans such as "land for peasants" and "factories for workers". The SNP opposed economic and political ties with the West, and was particularly opposed to the European Union and Germany. Instead, the party proposed to develop ties with Poland's eastern neighbours such as Belarus. It also opposed Polish participation in the Iraq War because of its anti-NATO sentiment, and argued that the Polish people had lost out on the war.[25]
The SNP also echoed nationalist and populist sentiments, and referred to itself as a nationalist and patriotic party devoted to Polish nation. It presented itself as the 'real' Samoobrona, accusing its parent party (Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland) as betraying its own program and engaging in corruption. The leader of the SNP, Mazanek, stated: "It is Lepper's Samoobrona that is being impersonated. The newly established Samoobrona is called Samoobrona Narodu Polskiego [Self-Defence of the Polish Nation] because the nation is the subject and its good is the main objective of the party's activity. The programme that Mr Lepper is pursuing is at odds with his ideological declaration."[2]
Andrzej Zbigniew Lepper was a Polish politician, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Agriculture, and the leader of Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland. Known for his radical rhetoric and aggressive protests, Lepper was considered a far-left populist, compared to left-wing figures such as José Bové, Hugo Chávez, Evo Morales, and Juan Perón. He left a long-lasting impact on Polish politics, emerging as the "defender of the oppressed and (...) all working people, the weak, and the needy." He was particularly known for his Balcerowicz must go slogan, which he coined to protest the neoliberal Balcerowicz Plan that had deregulated and privatized Polish economy. Lepper considered the capitalist transition "economic genocide".
The Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland is a socialist, populist, agrarian, and nationalist political party and trade union in Poland. The party promotes agrarian socialist and Catholic socialist economic policies combined with a left-wing populist, anti-globalization and anti-neoliberal rhetoric. The party describes itself as left-wing, although it stresses that it belongs to the "patriotic left" and follows Catholic social teaching. The party is sympathetic to Communist Poland, which led political scientists to label the party as neocommunist, post-communist, and far-left.
The Polish Peasant Bloc was a short-lived political party in Poland, founded in 2003 by members of the parliamentary circle of the same name, which was established in December 2002. It was dissolved in 2004, however the parliamentary circle existed until January 2005. It claimed to follow patriotic-peasant-democratic values. The chairman of the grouping was Wojciech Mojzesowicz. In 2014 PBL was reactivated as an informal grouping, and Wacław Klukowski became its president.
League and Self-Defense was a short-lived Polish political alliance between the left-wing populist Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland (Samoobrona) and the national conservative Christian right League of Polish Families (LPR) in July 2007. The alliance was directed against right-wing populist Law and Justice (PiS) that first formed a coalition with both parties, but then gradually marginalized them and shuffled away their ministers. The coalition was marked by mutual distrust as the parties had radically different outlooks, tied together by Euroscepticism, opposition to capitalism and aversion to PiS. The coalition was only polling 6%, and was dissolved by September 2007, shortly before the election. In the 2007 Polish parliamentary election, both LPR and Samoobrona failed to reach the 5% electoral threshold, losing all their 92 Sejm and 10 Senate seats. The downfall of both parties is considered to have been caused by PiS appropriating their political rhetoric.
Patriotic Self-Defence was a minor political party in Poland. The party was founded in September 2006 by former members of the Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, who left the party following an argument with the leader of Self-Defence Andrzej Lepper. The party ran in the 2007 Polish parliamentary election, where it tried to take votes from their former party by using a similar name, logo and political program. Ultimately, the party's electoral lists were only accepted in one electoral district. The party won 0.02% of the nationwide vote. It disbanded in 2013.
The Party of Regions was a left-wing Polish non-parliamentary political party created in November 2007 and registered in February 2008. The Party of Regions was created by former members of Self-Defence and the Democratic Left Alliance after the parliamentary election in 2007, when Self-Defence support collapsed to far less than the 5% electoral threshold giving them no seats in the new legislature. Founders of the grouping included Krzysztof Filipek, Danuta Hojarska and Bolesław Borysiuk. For failure to disclose their financial records for the year 2015, they were struck off in early 2017.
The Social Alliance was an electoral coalition created for the 1998 Polish local elections. Formed on 27 June 1998, the Social Alliance included the Polish People's Party along with its smaller left-oriented party partners, such as the Labour Union, the National Party of Retirees and Pensioners, the Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland and few members of Alliance of Democrats (Poland). The party represented the "independent left" that challenged the anti-communist and pro-communist dichotomy of Polish politics while maintaining a strongly leftist profile inspired by pre-WW2 socialist and agrarian movements. It protested against the capitalist reforms carried out in Poland such as austerity, criticizing them for creating massive wealth inequality. Nevertheless, the coalition cooperated with the post-communist Democratic Left Alliance as well as the Polish Socialist Party.
Organisation of the Polish Nation – Polish League is a Polish centre-right political party founded in 2000 that actively participated in local and parliamentary Polish elections, bringing together activists from Poland and Poles in exile. The party was created with an aim to create a common front for Polish communities abroad, providing them legal and political representation. Ideologically, the party declares to stand for and strictly adhere to "national, cultural and Christian values born out of the over a thousand-year history of the Polish State". The ONP-LP also considers itself to be based on the "Christian, agrarian, nationalist and anti-liberal" tradition. It has immigrant community clubs and cooperates with Polish diaspora organisations in Switzerland, Norway and Australia. The party participated in the 2005 Polish parliamentary election as well as the 2005 presidential election, albeit it only won a marginal number of votes. It also ran on electoral lists of nationalist parties until 2019.
Self-Defence Rebirth is a Polish political party founded by the former Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland activists. The party was founded by the former lawyer of Andrzej Lepper, Henryk Dzido, who split off from the main Self-Defence party following numerous scandals and the electoral collapse of Samoobrona. Self-Defence Rebirth was also created over concerns that Samoobrona might form a coalition with the right-wing League of Polish Families. Zbigniew Witaszek is one of the key activists of the new party. The party describes itself as Catholic socialist, agrarian socialist, Soft Eurosceptic and left-wing.
Peasants' Party is a Polish political party founded by the former Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland activists in 2018. The party was registered in April 2018 by Krzysztof Filipek, a long-time vice-chairman of Samoobrona, who seceded from Samoobrona for the regionalist Party of Regions in 2007 before founding the Peasants' Party. The party includes former MPs and agrarian activists of Self-Defence such as Danuta Hojarska and Renata Beger. The party announced that it would not run independently in elections, and started cooperating with agrarian trade unions and sought coalitions with left-wing parties. In August 2018, the party entered an agreement with the left-wing Democratic Left Alliance to run on the party's electoral list.
United Beyond Boundaries, known as Action of Disappointed Retirees and Pensioners until 2022 is a Polish political party founded in 2018. The party was created in February 2018 and formally registered six months later, in August 2018. The leader of the party is Wojciech Kornowski, a prominent member and founder of the nationalist communist organisation Patriotic Union "Grunwald". Kornowski was briefly the leader of democratic socialist National Party of Retirees and Pensioners in May 2012, but seceded from the party to create his own pensioner-oriented party Pensioners' Party of the Republic of Poland, which then became the Action of Disappointed Retirees and Pensioners in 2018. Since 2022, the party also leads an electoral committee "United Beyond Divisions".
Edward Gierek's Economic Revival Movement is a Polish left-wing party with a communist programme, referring to the ideology and legacy of Edward Gierek, the First Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party in the 1970s and 1980s. It was founded on 17 December 2004 and registered in March 2005 by Paweł Bożyk, who was one of Gierek's economic advisors. The largest regional structures of the party are located in Zagłębie and Warsaw. ROG advocates Poland's active participation in the European Union while having friendly relations with the East, and the cessation of activities within NATO. It called for the withdrawal of troops from Iraq.
Self-Defence Social Movement was a political faction within Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland and later an independent political party. Social Movement emerged as a political faction within SRP in early 2000s amongst the local activists of the party in Mazowsze. The faction placed particular emphasis on agrarianism and rural interests. It also fought for social justice and defended people against evictions. In 2006, Social Movement entered into conflict with party leader Andrzej Lepper over the party's electoral lists for the 2006 Polish local elections, which included many newcomers and non-members at expense of long-serving members of the party. The conflict came to a head when the leader of the faction Sławomir Izdebski demanded expulsions of Krzysztof Filipek from the party.
National Self-Defence Front, also known as the Polish National Front was a Polish extreme nationalist political party active between 1994 and 1995. The party leader was Janusz Bryczkowski. It was related to the skinhead subculture and recruited members of the subculture to its fascist military group. It was founded by Bryczkowski after he was expelled from Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland after his unsuccessful attempt to oust the party's leader, Andrzej Lepper, from power.
People's National Movement was a parliamentary group in the 5th legislature (2005–2007) of Sejm of the Republic of Poland. It was founded on 22 September 2006 by former MPs of Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland and League of Polish Families and was a response to both parties distancing themselves from Law and Justice, which they considered breaking their coalition agreement with. The goal of the People's National Movement was to keep the coalition with Law and Justice at any cost.
Polish Reason of State was a minor Polish political party that was active between 2003 and 2005, with a parliamentary circle in the 4th Sejm that functioned between 2003 and 2004. Founded in September 2003 by former members of the Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, the party was registered in late 2004 and was composed of four Samoobrona MPs that were expelled from the party on 23 July 2003. It was later joined by two former Samoobrona members that left the party prior to 2003.
The Fatherland – Polish List was an electoral alliance in Poland created by the National Party "Fatherland". It was an electoral bloc that the National Party contested the 1993 Polish parliamentary election with. It unsuccessfully sought an alliance with a far-left agrarian socialist Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland.
The National Party "Fatherland" was a political party in Poland was formed in March 1992 as a result of a split in the National Party (1989). The party leaders were Bogusław Rybicki and Bogusław Jeznach. The newspaper of the party was the weekly magazine "Ojczyzna". National Party "Fatherland" pursued a coalition with left-wing populist and nationalist parties such as the Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, but was unsuccessful in doing so. The party participated in the 1993 Polish parliamentary election, creating an electoral committee Fatherland - Polish List. However, it failed to win any seats, earning 15.958 votes, which amounted to 0,12% of the popular vote. The party rapidly declined after 1993, and in 1996 it dissolved to join a right-wing National Democratic Party.
The Alternative Social Movement was coalition of Polish political parties formed on 18 March 2001 in Warsaw for the 2001 Polish parliamentary election. The grouping was formed from a merger of Confederation of Independent Poland - Patriotic Camp led by Michał Janiszewski, Tomasz Karwowski, and Janina Kraus, together with a group of politicians originating from the Christian National Union (ZChN), including Henryk Goryszewski and Mariusz Olszewski. The coalition was also joined by the Free Trade Union 'August 80' Confederation, led by Daniel Podrzycki and Bogusław Ziętek. The Alternative Social Movement was registered as a political party, and its members mainly became the activists of August 80.
Social Movement of the Republic of Poland is a Polish political party founded by the agricultural and farmer trade union All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions of Farmers and Agricultural Organisations, which became known for farmer blockades and protests in winter 2015. It was headed by the leader of OPZZ RiOR Stanisław Izdebski, as well as a known socialist activist Piotr Ikonowicz. The party initially supported Paweł Kukiz, endorsing him in the 2015 Polish presidential election; it then formed and held its first party convention on 26 April 2015. The party was registered on 23 July, and distanced itself from Kukiz. It unsuccessfully attempted to organize a broad left-wing coalition for the 2015 Polish parliamentary election with minor socialist and left-wing parties. After the coalition talks failed, Social Movement ultimately ran independently in the election, but it only managed to gather enough signatures to register its electoral lists in three electoral districts. It won 3941 votes (0.03%) in the 2015 election. After the election, the party's activities were continued by the Social Justice Movement led by Ikonowicz.
1 2 Mika, Dagmara (2 July 2013). Wybory do Parlamentu Europejskiego w 2009 roku - specyfika krajowa i lokalna. Studium empiryczne kampanii wyborczej w Bielsku-Białej (in Polish). Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach.
1 2 3 Ania Krok-Paszkowska; Petr Kopecky; Cas Mudde (2003). "Samoobrona: The Polish Self-Defence Movement". Uncivil Society? Contentious Politics in Post-Communist Europe. Routledge. pp.114–116. ISBN9780203988787.
↑ Andrzej Antoszewski[in Polish] (2005). Partie polityczne Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej (in Polish). Poznań-Wrocław: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Bankowości w Poznaniu. pp.180–181. ISBN83-88544-63-2.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
