Solanum sturtianum | |
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A flowering Sturts Nightshade | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Solanales |
Family: | Solanaceae |
Genus: | Solanum |
Species: | S. sturtianum |
Binomial name | |
Solanum sturtianum | |
Distribution map of Sturt's Nightshade from the AVH |
Solanum sturtianum, commonly known as Sturt’s nightshade or Thargomindah nightshade, is a flowering plant from the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. Distinct by its purple flowers and dark-black fruits, it is a shrub endemic to the arid zones of mainland Australia. [2]
A highly distinctive perennial shrub by its silvery-green foliage and bright purple flowers. It averages a height of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) but can grow up to 3 m (9.8 ft). [3] [4] It is found in groups known as colonies connected by shallow roots systems of underground rhizomes, which assists in survival in the desert climate due to its nutrient storing ability. [5] These rhizomes essentially create clones of the parent plant to form daughter plants.
The stem and leaves are densely covered with stellate (star-shaped) hairs and prickles scattered over the stem 0.3–0.7 mm (0.012–0.028 in) apart, characteristics of the Solanum genus. [6] It flowers from March through to October with five distinctive purple petals with yellow staminodes and a green central stigma. The leaves appear as elongated spearheads, 30–60 mm (1.2–2.4 in) in length with straight edges and pointed tips. They commonly vary between silvery-green on the adaxial surface and grey-green on the abaxial surface.
The distinctive feature of the S. sturtianum is the dark black dry fruit which is 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in) and contains approximately 60 seeds. [2] Each seed is about 3 mm (0.12 in) in length and has a viability of approximately 78% with the ability to stay dormant until there are satisfactory moisture levels in the soil. [7]
Species commonly confused are the S. oligocanthum which has leaves with ridged or teethed edges and lighter fruits and S. elaeagnifolium which again has light brown fruits and hair present on the leaves giving a fuzzy appearance. [4] Both of these are found in the same arid areas of Australia and therefore location can not be a factor used to differentiate between species.
Solanum is the largest genus in the Solanaceae family containing over 2000 species, with over 70 endemic to Australia. [8] Solanum is from the Latin word meaning to comfort with many plants from this genus used for their medicinal ability. [6] This genus also includes those plants that are commonly used as a food source including the potato, eggplant and tomato. [9]
Solanum sturtianum was first noted by Charles Napier Sturt in 1844 during an exploration across New South Wales and subsequently named sturtianum in honor of and later described by Ferdinand Mueller. S. morrisonii was then later added by botanist David Symon in 1960 and believed to be a closely related species however was later confirmed to be a variation of S. sturtianum. [2]
The S. sturtianum is native to Australia. The distribution map emphasizes areas where it has been observed with over 940 recorded observations by the Australasian Virtual Herbarium. The distribution includes the arid zones of most states however there is a notably large presence in Western Australia. [10] This is as to be expected as 26 out of the 70 from the Solanum genus that are endemic to Australia are solely found in Western Australia. [8] It is not present in Victoria however in 2011 there was a singular case on the Victorian border. [2]
The shrub shows a preference for rocky terrain and is common among drainage lines in pastures and other disturbed soil sites. [4] [6] In agricultural areas and along the stock route they are treated as a noxious weed and removed through the use of herbicides.
Bees are responsible for 93% of pollination with the Braunsapis and Amegilla the most influential. Solanum are unique lacking open terminal pores and instead have to be milked from the anthers or dug out of terminal pores. [11] These larger bee genera are able to undertake this task more successfully and can vibrate the pollen out with their larger bodies and wings within seconds. Nectar glands appearing on the back of the flower are also used to attract ants and bees, a unique feature to S. sturtianum with most other species non-nectar producing. [4] Sturt's nightshade is also a hermaphrodite meaning the plant has both a stamen and stigma, therefore most bees end up pollinating the same plant. In the event pollination cannot occur and create seed formation the S. sturtianum's ability to clone relieves the selective pressure however limits the variability. [12]
The use of a glycoalkaloid component allows the plant to be better suited to the extreme climate and minimises attacks from herbivores, fungi, bacteria and other pathogens. The extreme bitterness of the plant means its fruit containing the seeds is not a food source and increases its survivability. [13] Its rapid growth rate and ability to form colonies can also repress other plant growth due to the limited resources.
It can grow in a variety of climates but prefers those of the arid zone with gravelly and disturbed soils for seed dispersal ease. An arid zone is classed as an area with a moisture index of lower than 0.4 with an average rainfall of less than 250mm. [14] Hence why seeds have developed the adaption of remaining dormant until sufficient moisture is present for germination.
S. sturtianum is extremely toxic to animals when consumed, with most cases seen in sheep and cattle travelling along stock routes. This poisoning occurs through glycoalkaloid, a secondary metabolite found in the plant. Glycoalkaloids play an important role in preventing snails, and other pest species from consuming the leaves and fruit, however they also have subsequent effects on larger grazing animals. [15] The toxin is found predominantly in the unripe fruit which is common to most poisonous members of the Solanum genus. [9] Clinical signs appear in poisoned animals after water consumption. The toxin causes gastrointestinal upset resulting in blood in the faeces, drowsiness, weakness, restlessness, and ultimately death. This can be caused by as little as 400 grams of consumption in sheep and 700 grams in cattle. [4]
Solanum is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants, which include three food crops of high economic importance: the potato, the tomato and the eggplant. It is the largest genus in the nightshade family Solanaceae, comprising around 1,500 species. It also contains the so-called horse nettles, as well as numerous plants cultivated for their ornamental flowers and fruit.
Solanum carolinense, the Carolina horsenettle, is not a true nettle, but a member of the Solanaceae, or nightshade family. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, native to the southeastern United States, though its range has expanded throughout much of temperate North America. The plant is an invasive in parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The stem and undersides of larger leaf veins are covered with prickles.
Buzz pollination or sonication is a technique used by some bees, such as solitary bees and bumblebees, to release pollen which is more or less firmly held by the anthers. The anthers of buzz-pollinated plant species are typically tubular, with an opening at only one end, and the pollen inside is smooth-grained and firmly attached. With self-fertile plants such as tomatoes, wind may be sufficient to shake loose the pollen through pores in the anther and accomplish pollination. Visits by bees may also shake loose some pollen, but more efficient pollination of those plants is accomplished by a few insect species who specialize in sonication or buzz pollination.
Solanum mauritianum is a small tree or shrub native to South America, including Northern Argentina, Southern Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Its common names include earleaf nightshade, woolly nightshade, flannel weed, bugweed, tobacco weed, tobacco bush, wild tobacco and kerosene plant.
Solanum lycocarpum, or wolf apple, is common in the Brazilian savanna, the Cerrado ecoregion. The plant is called lobeira or fruta-do-lobo in Portuguese.
Solanum americanum, commonly known as American black nightshade, small-flowered nightshade or glossy nightshade, is a herbaceous flowering plant of wide though uncertain native range. The certain native range encompasses the tropics and subtropics of the Americas, Melanesia, New Guinea, and Australia.
Solanum mammosum, commonly known as nipplefruit, fox head, cow's udder, or apple of Sodom, is an inedible Pan-American tropical fruit. The plant is grown for ornamental purposes, in part because of the distal end of the fruit's resemblance to a human breast, while the proximal end looks like a cow's udder. It is an annual in the family Solanaceae, and part of the genus Solanum, making the plant a relative of the eggplant, tomato, and potato. This poisonous fruit is native to South America, but has been naturalized in Southern Mexico, Greater Antilles, Central America, and the Caribbean. The plant adapts well to most soils, but thrives in moist, loamy soil.
Solanum elaeagnifolium, the silverleaf nightshade or silver-leaved nightshade, is a species of plant in the nightshade family native to North and South America. It is common in parts of southwestern USA, and sometimes weed of western North America. Other common names include prairie berry, silverleaf nettle, white horsenettle or silver nightshade. In South Africa it is known as silver-leaf bitter-apple or satansbos. More ambiguous names include "bull-nettle", "horsenettle" and the Spanish "trompillo".
Schizanthus, also called butterfly flower, fringeflower, poor-man's-orchid, is a genus of plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae.
Solanum rostratum is a species of nightshade that is native to the United States and northern and central Mexico. Common names include buffalobur nightshade, buffalo-bur, spiny nightshade, Colorado bur, Kansas thistle, bad woman, Mexican thistle, and Texas thistle.
Solanum seaforthianum, the Brazilian nightshade, is a flowering evergreen vine of the family Solanaceae native to tropical South America. As a member of the Solanum genus, it is related to such plants as the tomato and potato. It is characterized by clusters of four to seven leaves and can climb to a height of 6 m (20 ft) given enough room. It blooms in the mid to late summer with clusters of star-shaped purple inflorescence followed by scarlet marble-sized berries. The plant is highly heat resistant, but cannot tolerate frost conditions. The plant contains modest amounts of various tropane alkaloids such as atropine, scopolamine and hyoscyamine and should be considered mildly toxic and inedible. Promising molluscicidal and schistosomicidal activities were displayed for the S. seaforthianum extracts and fractions which are attributed to the glycoalkaloid content.
Solanum diphyllum, commonly known as the twoleaf nightshade, is a species of nightshade native to the Americas. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant for its clusters of dark green round fruits that turn a bright yellow when ripe.
Solanum macrocarpon otherwise known as the African eggplant : añara), Surinamese eggplant or Vietnamese eggplant is a plant of the family Solanaceae. S. macrocarpon is a tropical perennial plant that is closely related to the eggplant. S. macrocarpon originated from West Africa, but is now widely distributed in Central and East Africa. The plant also grows in the Caribbean, South America, and some parts of Southeast Asia. S. macrocarpon is widely cultivated for its use as a food, its medicinal purposes, and as an ornamental plant.
The Solanaceae, or the nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent alkaloids, and some are highly toxic, but many—including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell, and chili peppers—are used as food. The family belongs to the order Solanales, in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of habitats, morphology and ecology.
Solanum cerasiferum is a species of plant in the nightshade family. It is native to tropical Africa.
Solanum esuriale is a species of perennial herbaceous plant native to Australia.
Senecio gregorii, commonly known as annual yellowtop or fleshy groundsel, is a native Australian wildflower species, found in arid and semi-arid regions of the Australia and across the globe. It often grows prolifically after autumn/winter rains, showcasing stunning yellow flowers and fleshy foliage. The scientific name of this species was first published by Ferdinand von Mueller.
Solanum petrophilum, commonly known as rock nightshade or prickly nightshade, is an Australian native perennial herbaceous plant that belongs to the family Solanaceae. Solanaceae has a worldwide distribution and also contains important food species such as the tomato, peppers, and potatoes.
Solanum acerifolium is a species of small flowering shrub that belongs to the Solanaceae family, commonly known as the nightshade family. The species description was first published by a French botanist, Michel Félix Dunal in 1816.
Solanum oligacanthum is a species of herbaceous perennial herb or subshrub which is spread throughout central east Australia. This species is often found in seasonally flooded creek channels, flats and lagoons, and commonly referred to as desert nightshade.