Stickleback

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Sticklebacks
Four species of stickleback (Gasterosteidae).jpg
Four marine species of stickleback from the Atlantic Ocean coast of North America
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Scorpaeniformes
Suborder: Gasterosteoidei
Family: Gasterosteidae
Bonaparte, 1831 [1]
Genera

see text

The sticklebacks are a family of ray-finned fishes, the Gasterosteidae which have a Holarctic distribution in fresh, brackish and marine waters. They were thought to be related to the pipefish and seahorses but are now thought to be more closely related to the eelpouts and sculpins.

Contents

Taxonomy

The stickleback family, Gasterosteidae, was first proposed as a family by the French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831. [1] It was long thought that the sticklebacks and their relatives made up a suborder, the Gasterosteoidei, of the order Gasterostiformes with the sea horses and pipefishes making up the suborder Syngnathoidei. More recent phylogenetic work has shown that the Gaterosteoidei is more closely related to the Zoarcoidei and the Cottoidei, which means that this taxon would belong in the order Scorpaeniformes. [2] but in other phylogenetic classifications it is treated as the infraorder Gasterosteales within the suborder Cottoidei or as a sister clade to the Zoarcales in the order Zoarciformes. [3]

FishBase recognises 16 species in the family, grouped in five genera. [4] However, several of the species have a number of recognised subspecies, and the taxonomy of the family is thought to be in need of revision.

Genera

The family Gasterosteidae includes the following genera: [4]

Description

1994 Faroe Islands postage stamp with three-spined sticklebacks Faroe stamp 248 stickleback (gasterosteus aculeatus).gif
1994 Faroe Islands postage stamp with three-spined sticklebacks

Sticklebacks are endemic to the temperate zone [5] and are most commonly found in the ocean, but some can be found in fresh water. The freshwater taxa were trapped in Europe, Asia, and North America after the Ice Age 10,000–20,000 years ago, and have evolved features different from those of the marine species. [6] [7]

Sticklebacks are carnivorous, feeding on small animals such as insects, crustaceans and fish larvae. [8] [9]

Sticklebacks are characterised by the presence of strong and clearly isolated spines in their dorsal fins. [10] An unusual feature of sticklebacks is that they have no scales, although some species have bony armour plates.

Sizes

The maximum size of the best-known species, the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), is about 4 inches, but few of them are more than 3 inches long. They mature sexually at a length of about 2 inches. [11] Most other stickleback species are roughly similar in size or somewhat smaller. The only exception is the far larger fifteen-spined stickleback (Spinachia spinachia), which can reach 22 cm (approx. 8.8 inches). [12] Body form varies with habitat: sticklebacks in shallow lakes have developed a deep body specialized to enable feeding on benthic invertebrates, whilst those in deep oligotrophic lakes have adapted to feed on plankton and have a more slimlined body. [5]

Personality

Research has shown that Sticklebacks display distinct personality traits, specifically in the area of taking a risk, and, can be considered bold or shy. These personality traits were determined to directly influence if they would lead, and if discouraged, attempt to lead again. [13]

Mating

All stickleback species show similar, unusual mating behaviour. Freshwater males develop a red colouration, and although this may be seen in oceanic and benthic species these tend to remain dull-coloured. The male then constructs a nest from weeds held together by spiggin, [5] a kidney secretion, then attract females to the nest. Females signal their readiness to mate with solitary rather than shoaling behaviour, a head-up posture; their bellies are also obviously distended with eggs. [5] Courtship typically involves a zig-zag 'dance' where the male approaches the female in an erratic side-to-side pattern, and dorsal pricking of the female's abdomen. [5] A female lays her eggs inside the nest, where the male fertilises them. The male then guards the eggs until they hatch 7–14 days later (depending on temperature), [5] [9] and may continue to guard the fry after they hatch. This large investment in both the nesting site and guarding of the eggs limits the number of females a male can mate with however males spawn multiple times. [5] This introduces the ability for selection to favor male mate choice. [14] Some males die following spawning. [11]

Mating choice

Typically, the sex with the greatest parental investment has the strongest mate preferences. [15] Stickleback species exhibit mutual mate choice in which both the male and female have strong mate preferences. This is due in part to the strong parental investment on behalf of the male in guarding the eggs. [16]

Female mate choice

Female sticklebacks show a strong preference to male stickleback with bright red coloration under their throats. Females mate both more often with males with brighter red coloration and give on average, larger eggs to be fertilized by these males. This preference has led to brighter red coloring. [17] [18] This association is possible because the red coloration can only be produced by males that are free of parasites. This is referred to in the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis. [19]

However, there is also evidence that attractive male red coloration may be a faulty signal of male quality. Male sticklebacks that are more attractive to females due to carotenoid colorants may under-allocate carotenoids to their germline cells. [20] Since carotinoids are beneficial antioxidants, their under-allocation to germline cells can lead to increased oxidative DNA damage to these cells. [20] Therefore, female sticklebacks may risk fertility and the viability of their offspring by choosing redder, but more deteriorated partners with reduced sperm quality.

Female mate choice has also been seen to be condition dependent. Females are almost always the more choosy sex in most species. Female sticklebacks though, have been found to be less choosy of mates when in poor physical condition and inversely, more choosy in good condition. [21]

Male mate choice

In some species, such as the three-spined stickleback, the large investment in both nesting site and guarding of eggs by males limits the number of females a male can mate with. [22] This introduces the ability for selection to favor male mate choice. Male mate choice is rarely studied or observed in many species but multiple studies have confirmed male mate choice within stickleback species. Males show a choosiness similar to females as to what female they are willing to court and mate. Male sticklebacks have been observed to show preference towards female sticklebacks that are larger and longer. This is believed to be because larger females on average produce larger eggs, which leads to a greater offspring survival and fitness. [16] In addition, male sticklebacks have also been observed to prefer females with more distended or bloated stomachs. The benefits of this is also due to larger eggs and thus offspring survival and fitness [23]

Inbreeding avoidance

Female three-spined sticklebacks adjust their courting behaviour to the risk of inbreeding. [24] When gravid females are given the choice between a courting unfamiliar non-sibling and a familiar brother, they prefer to mate with the non-sibling and thus avoid the disadvantages that accompany incest. [24] Eggs from inbred matings compared to eggs from outbred matings have a lower rate of fertilization and hatching, and fewer progeny survive to reproductive age. [24]

Use in science

Niko Tinbergen's studies of the behaviour of this fish were important in the early development of ethology as an example of a fixed action pattern. More recently, the fish have become a favourite system for studying the molecular genetics of evolutionary change in wild populations [25] and a powerful "supermodel" for combining evolutionary studies at molecular, developmental, population genetic, and ecological levels. [26] The nearly complete genome sequence of a reference freshwater stickleback was described in 2012, along with set of genetic variants commonly found in 21 marine and freshwater populations around the world. Some variants, and several chromosome inversions, consistently distinguish marine and freshwater populations, helping identify a genome-wide set of changes contributing to repeated adaptation of sticklebacks to marine and freshwater environments. [27] The adaptations seen in oceanic threespine sticklebacks make them an ideal organism for the study of parallel evolution. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection</span> Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates

Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with, and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex. These two forms of selection mean that some individuals have greater reproductive success than others within a population, for example because they are more attractive or prefer more attractive partners to produce offspring. Successful males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to one or more fertile females. Females can maximise the return on the energy they invest in reproduction by selecting and mating with the best males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three-spined stickleback</span> Species of fish

The three-spined stickleback is a fish native to most inland and coastal waters north of 30°N. It has long been a subject of scientific study for many reasons. It shows great morphological variation throughout its range, ideal for questions about evolution and population genetics. Many populations are anadromous and very tolerant of changes in salinity, a subject of interest to physiologists. It displays elaborate breeding behavior and it can be social making it a popular subject of inquiry in fish ethology and behavioral ecology. Its antipredator adaptations, host-parasite interactions, sensory physiology, reproductive physiology, and endocrinology have also been much studied. Facilitating these studies is the fact that the three-spined stickleback is easy to find in nature and easy to keep in aquaria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninespine stickleback</span> Species of fish

The ninespine stickleback, also called the ten-spined stickleback, is a freshwater species of fish in the family Gasterosteidae that inhabits temperate waters. It is widely but locally distributed throughout Eurasia and North America. Despite its name, the number of spines can vary from 8 to 12.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cannibalism</span> Consuming another individual of the same species as food

Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, both in ancient and in recent times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mate choice</span> One of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur

Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a "selective response by animals to particular stimuli" which can be observed as behavior. In other words, before an animal engages with a potential mate, they first evaluate various aspects of that mate which are indicative of quality—such as the resources or phenotypes they have—and evaluate whether or not those particular trait(s) are somehow beneficial to them. The evaluation will then incur a response of some sort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brook stickleback</span> Species of fish

The brook stickleback is a small freshwater fish that is distributed across the US and Canada. It grows to a length of about 2 inches. It occupies the northern part of the eastern United States, as well as the southern half of Canada. Small populations are scattered throughout the Mississippi-Great Lakes basin extending to Colorado, New Mexico, Kentucky, Tennessee, etc., though some of these areas are not native to the species. This small fish inhabits clear, cool streams and lakes. They eat small invertebrates, algae, insect larvae, and occasionally their own eggs. They are also preyed upon by smallmouth bass and northern pike. Feeding time is usually dawn and sunset. The brook stickleback does have active competition mostly from minnows, but feeding times are different, along with diet. Spawning occurs in midsummer. Males secure a territory, build a nest, and mate with females. Males provide protection for the eggs, ward off predators, and usually die later in the season. This is considered an annual species. The nests are built out of aquatic grasses. Though the brook stickleback is not considered a threatened species, deforesting and changing waters are altering ecosystems of the species. Harvesting of trees around riparian environments is having a large effect of the stream ecosystem where the brook stickleback resides.

Pungitius hellenicus, the Greek ninespine stickleback or ellinopygósteos, is a species of fish in the family Gasterosteidae. It is endemic to Greece. Its natural habitats are rivers and freshwater spring. It is threatened by habitat loss and considered critically endangered in the International Red List of IUCN, Bern Convention.

<i>Schistocephalus solidus</i> Species of flatworm

Schistocephalus solidus is a tapeworm of fish, fish-eating birds and rodents. This hermaphroditic parasite belongs to the Eucestoda subclass, of class Cestoda. This species has been used to demonstrate that cross-fertilization produces a higher infective success rate than self-fertilization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish intelligence</span> Intellectual capacity of fish

Fish intelligence is "the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills" as it applies to fish. Due to a common perception amongst researchers that Teleost fish are "primitive" compared to mammals and birds, there has been much less research into fish cognition than into those types of animals, and much remains unknown about fish cognition, though evidence of complex navigational skills such as cognitive maps is increasing.

Valeriy Valeryevich Zyuganov (Russian: Зюганов Валерий Валерьевич, born 31 July 1955 in Yangiyo‘l city, is a Soviet and Russian biologist, and Doctor of Biological Sciences. He is the pupil and follower of professors V.V. Khlebovich,the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Yu. A. Labas.A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of SciencesArchived 2007-12-13 at the Wayback Machine

<i>Gasterosteus</i> Genus of fishes

Gasterosteus is a genus of ray-finned fishes belonging to the family Gasterosteidae, the sticklebacks. These fishes are found in freshwater, brackish water and marine habitats in the Holarctic region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackspotted stickleback</span> Species of fish

The blackspotted stickleback is species of ray-finned fish belonging to the family Gasterosteidae, the sticklebacks. This fish is found in the western Atlantic from the coasts of Newfoundland (Canada) to Massachusetts. This is a benthopelagic species of marine and brackish waters, rarely entering freshwater, which remains near the shore. It is frequently associated with floating vegetation. The male builds a nest, in which the females deposit eggs and the male guards and aerates them. It is a small fish which reaches a maximum published total length of 7.6 cm (3.0 in), although 3.5 cm (1.4 in) is more typical. The specific name honors Richard H. Wheatland who was the Cabinet Keeper, for the Essex County Natural History Society of Salem, Massachusetts and who collected type of this species in 1859.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smallhead stickleback</span> Species of fish

The smallhead stickleback, or resident threespined stickleback, is a fish species, which widespread in the basin of the Pacific Ocean: Japan, also Mexico. Freshwater demersal fish, up to 5.5 cm (2.2 in) length. Habits small streams, where feeds on aquatic insects and other invertebrates. This taxon is regarded by some authorities as a synonym of the three-spined stickleback, and others treat it as a subspecies of the three-spined stickleback, G. a. microcephalus.

<i>Spinachia</i> Species of fish

Spinachia is a monospecific genus of ray-finned fish belonging to the family Gasterosteidae, the sticklebacks. The only species in the genus is Spinachia spinachia, the sea stickleback, fifteen-spined stickleback or fifteenspine stickleback, a species which lives in benthopelagic and in brackish environments of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. This species, the largest of the sticklebacks, grows to a length of 22 centimetres (8.7 in) SL. This species is the only known member of its genus Spinachia. It is of no interest as a commercial fish.

<i>Apeltes</i> Genus of fishes

Apeltes is a monospecific genus old ray-finned fish belonging to the family Gasterosteidae, the sticklebacks. The only species in the genus is Apeltes quadracus, the fourspine stickleback or bloody stickleback, which lives in freshwater, brackish and benthopelagic environments of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean between Newfoundland and South Carolina.

Aggression refers to negative behavior or attitudes toward another, mainly by applying physical force. Evolution on the other hand, is any process of formation or development of something like habit, trait or character in a population from generation to generation. Evolution can explain why fish exhibit aggression because it is a simple emotion. This emotion increases an individual's survival or reproduction. Aggressive behavior can derive in fish species due to territory, sex specific selection and genetic variation. There is no specific fish species who display invasive behavior. Almost all fish are aggressive sometimes in their lives depending on their surroundings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Icelandic threespine stickleback</span> Species of fish

The Icelandic threespine stickleback is a freshwater fish, and one of the few vertebrate species endemic to Iceland. In some literature it is considered as a subspecies of G. aculeatus, though several authorities offer it full species status. It was first described by French biologist Henri Émile Sauvage in 1874.

<i>Pungitius laevis</i> Species of fish

Pungitius laevis, commonly known as smoothtail ninespine stickleback, is a species of freshwater fish of the family Gasterosteidae. It is distributed in temperate brackish benthopelagic waters of coastal western Europe.

Gasterosteus nipponicus is a species of ray-finned fish belonging to the family Gasterosteidae, the sticklebacks. This species is found in the northwestern Pacific Ocean.

References

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  2. ↑ J. S. Nelson; T. C. Grande; M. V. H. Wilson (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Wiley. pp. 467–495. ISBN   978-1-118-34233-6.
  3. ↑ Ricardo Betancur-R; Edward O. Wiley; Gloria Arratia; et al. (2017). "Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 17 (162): 162. doi: 10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3 . PMC   5501477 . PMID   28683774.
  4. 1 2 Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2012). "Gasterosteidae" in FishBase . October 2012 version.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Foster, Susan A.; Cresko, William A.; Johnson, Kevin P.; Tlusty, Michael U.; Willmott, Harleigh E. (1996-01-01). "Patterns of homoplasy in behavioral evolution". In Sanderson, Michael J.; Hufford, Larry (eds.). Homoplasy. Academic Press. pp. 245–269. doi:10.1016/b978-012618030-5/50012-5. ISBN   978-0-12-618030-5 . Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  6. ↑ Münzing, Joachim (1963). "The evolution of variation and distributional patterns in European populations of the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus". Evolution. 17 (3): 320–332. doi:10.2307/2406161. JSTOR   2406161.
  7. ↑ Bell, Michael A. (1976). "Evolution of phenotypic diversity in Gasterosteus aculeatus superspecies on the Pacific Coast of North America". Systematic Zoology. 25 (3): 211–227. doi:10.2307/2412489. JSTOR   2412489.
  8. ↑ The Repeater - NYTimes.com
  9. 1 2 Orr, James W. & Pietsch, T.W. (1998). Paxton, J.R. & Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN   0-12-547665-5.
  10. ↑ Colosimo, Pamela F.; Hosemann, Kim E.; Balabhadra, Sarita; Villarreal, Guadalupe; Dickson, Mark; Grimwood, Jane; Schmutz, Jeremy; Myers, Richard M.; Schluter, Dolph; Kingsley, David M. (2005). "Widespread parallel evolution in sticklebacks by repeated fixation of ectodysplasin alleles". Science. 307 (5717): 1928–1933. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1928C. doi:10.1126/science.1107239. PMID   15790847. S2CID   1296135.
  11. 1 2 "Three-spined stickleback". Gma.org. Retrieved 2012-08-31.
  12. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2014). "Spinachia spinachia" in FishBase . April 2014 version.
  13. ↑ "Stickleback fish show initiative, personality and leadership". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-06-26.
  14. ↑ Sargent, Robert Craig; Gross, Mart R.; Van Den Berghe, Eric P. (1986-04-01). "Male mate choice in fishes". Animal Behaviour. 34 (2): 545–550. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80123-3. ISSN   0003-3472. S2CID   53183473.
  15. ↑ Balshine, S.; Kempenaers, B.; Székely, T.; Kokko, H.; Johnstone, R. A. (2002-03-29). "Why is mutual mate choice not the norm? Operational sex ratios, sex roles and the evolution of sexually dimorphic and monomorphic signalling". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 357 (1419): 319–330. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0926. PMC   1692955 . PMID   11958700.
  16. 1 2 Kraak, Sarah B. M; Bakker, Theo C. M. (1998-10-01). "Mutual mate choice in sticklebacks: attractive males choose big females, which lay big eggs". Animal Behaviour. 56 (4): 859–866. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.0822. PMID   9790696. S2CID   21298270.
  17. ↑ Barber, Iain; Arnott, Stephen A.; Braithwaite, Victoria A.; Andrew, Jennifer; Huntingford, Felicity A. (2001-01-07). "Indirect fitness consequences of mate choice in sticklebacks: offspring of brighter males grow slowly but resist parasitic infections". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1462): 71–76. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1331. PMC   1087602 . PMID   12123300.
  18. ↑ Bakker, Theo C. M.; Mundwiler, Beat (1994-03-01). "Female mate choice and male red coloration in a natural three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) population". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (1): 74–80. doi:10.1093/beheco/5.1.74.
  19. ↑ Milinski, Manfred; Bakker, Theo C. M. (March 1990). "Female sticklebacks use male coloration in mate choice and hence avoid parasitized males". Nature. 344 (6264): 330–333. Bibcode:1990Natur.344..330M. doi:10.1038/344330a0. S2CID   4322443.
  20. 1 2 Kim SY, Velando A. Attractive male sticklebacks carry more oxidative DNA damage in the soma and germline. J Evol Biol. 2020 Jan;33(1):121-126. doi: 10.1111/jeb.13552. Epub 2019 Nov 7. PMID 31610052
  21. ↑ Bakker, Theo C. M.; Künzler, Reto; Mazzi, Dominique (September 1999). "Condition-related mate choice in sticklebacks". Nature. 401 (6750): 234. doi: 10.1038/45727 . S2CID   205043554.
  22. ↑ Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N., eds. (1998). Encyclopedia of fishes (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN   0-12-547665-5. OCLC   39641701.
  23. ↑ Rowland, William J. (1982-11-01). "Mate choice by male sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus". Animal Behaviour. 30 (4): 1093–1098. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(82)80199-1. S2CID   54356731.
  24. 1 2 3 Frommen JG, Bakker TC. Inbreeding avoidance through non-random mating in sticklebacks. Biol Lett. 2006 Jun 22;2(2):232-5. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2005.0432. PMID 17148370; PMCID: PMC1618905
  25. ↑ Kingsley, D.M. and Peichel, C.L. (2007) The molecular genetics of evolutionary change in sticklebacks. in Biology of the three-spinestickleback. Ostlund-Nillson, S., Mayer, I. and Huntingford, F.A. (eds). CRC Press. pp. 41-81
  26. ↑ Gibson, Greg (2005-03-25). "The synthesis and evolution of a supermodel". Science . 307 (5717). AAAS: 1890–1891. doi:10.1126/science.1109835. PMID   15790836. S2CID   82257399 . Retrieved 2012-08-31.
  27. ↑ Jones, Felicity C.; Grabherr, Manfred G.; Chan, Yingguang Frank; Russell, Pamela; Mauceli, Evan; Johnson, Jeremy; Swofford, Ross; Pirun, Mono; Zody, Michael C.; White, Simon; Birney, Ewan; Searle, Stephen; Schmutz, Jeremy; Grimwood, Jane; Dickson, Mark C.; Myers, Richard M.; Miller, Craig T.; Summers, Brian R.; Knecht, Anne K.; Brady, Shannon D.; Zhang, Haili; Pollen, Alex A.; Howes, Timothy; Amemiya, Chris; Lander, Eric S.; Di Palma, Federica; Lindblad-Toh, Kerstin; Kingsley, David M.; Kingsley, D. M. (2012-04-04). "The genomic basis of adaptive evolution in threespine sticklebacks". Nature. 484 (7392): 55–61. Bibcode:2012Natur.484...55.. doi:10.1038/nature10944. PMC   3322419 . PMID   22481358.
  28. ↑ Reid, Kerry; Bell, Michael A.; Veeramah, Krishna R. (2021-08-31). "Threespine Stickleback: A Model System For Evolutionary Genomics". Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics. 22: 357–383. doi:10.1146/annurev-genom-111720-081402. ISSN   1545-293X. PMC   8415275 . PMID   33909459.
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