Storm's stork

Last updated

Storm's stork
Storm's Stork SMTC.jpg
At San Diego Zoo
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Ciconiiformes
Family: Ciconiidae
Genus: Ciconia
Species:
C. stormi
Binomial name
Ciconia stormi
(Blasius, 1896)
Storm's Stork range.png
Extant resident range

Storm's stork (Ciconia stormi) is a medium-sized stork species that occurs primarily in lowland tropical forests of Indonesia, Malaysia and southern Thailand. It is considered to be the rarest of all storks, [2] and is estimated to number less than 500 wild individuals throughout its geographic range. [1] The population has long been in decline and the primary cause is widely considered to be deforestation of its native habitat. [1]

Contents

Taxonomy and systematics

Sukau Rainforest Lodge, Kinabatangen River - Sabah, Borneo - Malaysia Storm's Stork.png
Sukau Rainforest Lodge, Kinabatangen River - Sabah, Borneo - Malaysia
Sukau Rainforest Lodge, Kinabatangen River - Sabah, Borneo - Malaysia Storm's Stork 2.tif
Sukau Rainforest Lodge, Kinabatangen River - Sabah, Borneo - Malaysia

This stork was first described by Blasius in 1896, and named after the German sea captain Hugo Storm, a collector of zoological specimens in the West Indies. [3] In Thailand, it is known as "nok kra su um", which refers to the birds’ fishing procedure by stalking along the bank of a stream in dense forest. [4]

This species is very similar and closely related to the woolly-necked stork [2] whose range partially overlaps with that of Storm's stork. [5] Although Storm's stork has long been considered a separate species, [2] [6] it has also been previously treated as a subspecies of the woolly-necked stork in the more recent past. [7] However, Storm's stork is characterised by a yellowish-orange facial skin patch around the eye that is absent in the woolly-necked stork; and the neck is black and white, whereas it is completely white in the woolly-necked stork. [2] However, the specific distinguishing features of Storm's stork have been poorly known in the past, which in the field has frequently led to confusion with the woolly-necked stork. [4] [5]

These two species are also ecologically segregated, with Storm's stork keeping to dense forests and the woolly-necked stork mainly inhabiting open swamp, rice paddy, grassland and dry cultivated areas. [4] There is evidence of sympatry of these two species in Sumatra, where both of these habitats are present. [5] Further, phylogenetic analyses of the Ciconiidae based on a portion of cytochrome oxidase b gene have suggested with strong support that Storm's stork and the woolly-necked stork are sister species. [8]

Description

This medium-sized stork stands at 75–91 cm tall [1] and most of the plumage is black. The undertail coverts and the back of neck are white with a black cap. It has orange facial skin with a yellow ring surrounding the eye, a red iris, and a pinkish-red bill. On some but not all male individuals, the culmen of the bill is slightly concave with a basal knob. [9]

The legs and feet of adults are dull red, but usually appear paler because they are often covered with the birds’ excreta. [2] The bill and other soft body parts darken in the breeding season. [2] The sexes are similar in appearance, but as in all storks, the male appears slightly larger. It is also speculated from field observations that the male's black cap, chest and throat are slightly glossier. [2]

The plumage of the chicks at 1–3 days old is completely white, accompanied by a black crown and a black bill with a yellow-orange tip. [2] The legs, facial skin and gular pouch are initially light yellow; as the chicks age, the legs become pink, and the facial skin becomes dark grey. The iris is initially brown.

The chicks grow very fast, doubling in new-born size in just under a month. [2] By this time, they have also begun to develop black feathers on their wings, throats and bodies. After 30 days, the areas of black feathering have increased, and the black chest and wing coverts are streaked with glossy green and bronze-red. [4] After 45 days, the young resemble adults, but they are still smaller with shorter, dark-tipped bills and paler skin colourations, and the blackness of their plumage is slightly duller. [9] The chicks become fully feathered after 52–57 days. [10] Wild young have been reported to leave the nest after about 60 days, [4] and individuals in captivity can usually fly after 90 days. [4]

The adult birds are generally silent outside the breeding season; however, during the breeding season they utter vocalisations that have been transcribed as "Kurau". [11] In captivity, one adult individual was heard making a quiet sibilant whistling. [2] Chicks have been heard to make a relatively loud froglike begging call when parents return to the nest with food. [10]

Distribution and habitat

The bulk of the world population of this stork occurs on Borneo; occurring in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Swarak, Sabah (Malaysia) and Brunei. [12] It is also found throughout Sumatra, [1] although its range there was previously considered to be restricted to the south east. [2] Despite being widespread on both of these islands, the population occurs at low densities and only one or a few individuals have ever been sighted together, [2] with the largest number being 12 during an observation in Brunei. [13] Smaller numbers live in some parts of peninsular Malaysia, where it appears to be particularly rare. [14] An even smaller minority lives in the extreme south of Thailand, [1] but this stork very unlikely occurs elsewhere in Thailand due to the near absence of remaining suitable habitat. [12]

In 1986, the first nest of this species ever known to science was discovered in Southern Thailand. [4] However, the construction of the Chiew Larn Dam in the same year led to destruction of much of this stork's lowland forest habitat through extensive flooding. [4] Following the flooding, Storm's stork was therefore believed to no longer breed there [15] and since then was previously considered extinct in Thailand. [16] However, this stork was re-sighted in Southern Thailand in 2004 with infrared camera traps; [12] but continues to be exceptionally uncommon given that usually only one individual has been sighted at a time despite the high intensity of camera trapping. [12] Nevertheless, its persistence in Southern Thailand does suggest the presence of a small breeding population. [12]

This stork's habitat is primarily dense lowland riverine forest and peat swamp forest, at altitudes not exceeding 240 metres above sea level. [10] The density of large trees in this habitat exceeding 10 cm at breast height is estimated to range from 500 to 800 trees per hectare, [4] and typical tree genera include Dipterocarpus and Ficus . [4] The forest undergrowth predominantly comprises rattans, bamboos, shrubs and climbers. [4] Because these habitats are largely inaccessible to humans, collecting data on this species is logistically difficult, [10] which may partly explain why little is known about this stork's natural history.

Although Storm's stork accepts both lowland riverine forest and peat swamp forest, it is currently unknown which of these habitats provide optimal living conditions for the species. [10] However, peat-swamp forest does appear to be an underestimated, ecologically important habitat for this stork across much of its range. [17] In the wake of continued anthropogenic loss of lowland riverine forest, peat-swamp forest possibly provides an important refuge for the species [17] and an extensive area of peat swamp forest occurs in West Kalimantan. [18] However, this forest habitat is also under threat through conversion to palm oil plantations, logging and forest fires, [18] so that increased conservation efforts should be directed on protecting peat-swamp forest. [18]

This species has been shown to be somewhat tolerant of logged forests; [19] however, these areas’ actual value as a breeding habitat for this species is disputed. [19] Danielsen and Heegaard [20] have considered Storm's stork incapable of breeding in logged forests despite apparent short term survival. In any case, current records have been too short to demonstrate long-term value of logged forests to this stork species. [21] The acceptance of logged forests by Storm's stork may also entail some caveats; for example, that there must invariably be easy access within logged forest to freshwater margins, [21] and that at least 20 years of forest regeneration should be allowed to elapse before real habitat value is re-established. [21] A local mosaic of primary and logged forest may also explain this species’ apparent persistence in logged forest, [20] because it may rely on the undisturbed forest patches as a refuge to sustain itself in the logged forest patches. [19]

This stork is often seen soaring at great heights over rivers and forest clearings, and like many other storks utilises thermals to assist it in gliding. [2] This behaviour is said to be "contagious" [2] because when one individual begins to soar, conspecifics join it in flight; with flocks consisting of up to six individuals. [2] On Borneo, it has also been reported on open, grassy freshwater swamps and paddy fields. [11] It appears to never frequent saline habitats, [22] but occasionally uses forested inland areas adjacent to bodies of water subject to tidal movements [1] and near mangrove swamps. [22]

Behaviour and ecology

Breeding

Two major breeding records of this species have been made; in southern Thailand in 1986, [4] and in swamp forest in southern Sumatra in 1989. [10] However, chicks in the Thailand breeding record were first observed in October [4] and those in Sumatra were first observed in early June. [10] The differing recorded times of egg laying in this species therefore does not suggest a strict breeding season. Collective breeding records of this species are currently scant possibly because nests are difficult to accurately locate in the dense forest habitat. [17]

The nest is usually located 19-30m above ground above riverbanks, often in the forks of trees of Dipterocarpus species. [4] At south Sumatra, a Storm's stork nest was studied that lay 8.3m above ground in an 18m-tall Rhizosphora mucronata tree. [10] In captivity, both the male and female have been observed to carry out nest-building activities. [23] The nest has an external outer diameter measuring between 30 and 50 cm; [4] [10] with a depth of 10–15 cm, [4] [10] and is typically composed of twigs and sticks mainly belonging to tree species in the genus Rhizosphora, [10] but also from species in the families Loranthaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, and Rubinaceae. [4] These sticks measure 15– 60 cm in length [4] [10] [23] and 0.5-1.5 cm in diameter. [10] [23] The nest interior is lined with soft material such as grass and down. 2–4 cm long leaflets from Xylocarpus species have also been identified as nest material, [10] and these plants have been found growing in the area surrounding the nest. [10] The same nest is often used by a pair over consecutive years; whereby both mates add more material to the nest each year. [9]

Male-female pairs of this species are typically monogamous. [9] Both parents attend to the young at the nest, but only one parent at a time is usually present; with the female estimated to spend three times as long alone at the nest as the male. [10] In the early stages of the chicks’ life, both parents have been observed to roost at or near the nest during the evening; but within a month only the female continues to roost at or near the nest. [10] Contrary to previous assertions, [24] this species actually appears to breed solitarily and does not nest in colonies. [10] However, it is sometimes found to roost communally, and several individuals have been observed roosting in tops of tall swamp trees a few kilometres from the nests. [10]

Two eggs are usually laid per year, [1] and the incubation period has been estimated at 29 days, [10] with both parents alternately incubating the eggs. [23] In captivity, the clutch size may range between two and four. [23] The young are fully fledged 90 days after hatching. [1] The only egg of this species to have been measured was an infertile one extracted from a nest containing two hatched chicks in south Sumatra in 1989. [10] This egg measured 60.1mm in length and 41.9mm in breadth, and was completely white after cleaning. [10] This egg is preserved at the Zoological Museum of Bogor, Indonesia, and is currently the only egg specimen available for this species. [10]

Pairs of this stork species perform impressive aerial courtship displays in which both partners do flips in flight, with the lower birds presenting its feet to the upper. Both birds also occasionally glide at high altitudes with level wings and dangling legs. [22] At the nest, they perform bill clattering activities that are typical of many species in the Ciconiidae. [7] [9]

In captivity, another courtship display has been observed in which both partners face each other on the ground or on the nest, extend their wings outward from the body, and bow to each other repeatedly. This display continues until the male approaches the female and attempts to copulate with her, [23] although copulation does not actually follow from most such displays. This display also sometimes continues when breeding is finished and chicks are at the nest. [23] However, the importance of this display in wild populations is unknown, since both parents have been sighted together at the nest for only 2% of the time from observations. [10]

Food and feeding

Storm's stork feeds primarily on small fish, frogs, aquatic insect larvae, and sometimes earthworms. [10] These are also the food items brought by both parents back for their young at the nest; with the fish measuring 5–7 cm long and weighing 10-30g, and the worms measuring 10–15 cm long. [2] The parents regurgitate the food into the bottom of the nest, whereupon it is picked up and swallowed by the chicks. [10] During a series of nest observations in southern Sumatra in 1989, adults were found to return to the nest with food for the chicks every 2–4 hours in June,; but in July, food was brought to the nest less often and significantly more frequently in the late afternoons. [10] In Sabah, they have also been reported to feed on grasshoppers and possibly crabs. [22] Hence, other food taxa may be similar to those of the woollynecked stork, but more data are required to fully confirm this, . [2]

This stork typically forages stealthily with slow, deliberate movements and a retracted neck [22] along muddy banks of rivers and creeks within dense primary forest; [2] [10] keeping primarily to the shaded areas. [21] Individuals with chicks usually forage 2–3 km from the nest. [10] It will also use other freshwater bodies as foraging localities with high densities of fish and freshwater invertebrates. [21] These include small pools, trackside puddles, swamps and oxbow lakes; [21] and the Storm's stork may be able to use these features optimally where they occur in a patchwork arrangement on riparian floodplains. [21] It can also use boggy clearings created by ungulates such as gaur that trample vegetation to access mineral licks. [22] In contrast, deep, fast-flowing rivers and waterways are avoided by this species due to reduced prey availability and its inability to stand in these waters. [21]

In Sabah, they have been found feeding on open ground that has recently been burnt. [22] They probably catch invertebrates that have been disturbed or killed by the fire. [22]

Threats and survival

The primary threat to this species is degradation of its lowland forest habitat through deforestation for logging and conversion to oil palm plantations. [2] [1] [10] For example, approximately two thirds of the swamp forests in South Sumatra were logged from 1982 to 1997. [10] Kalimantan lost almost 25% of its evergreen forest during 1985-1997 and all of Sumatra almost 30% of its 1985 cover. [1] The relative extent of destruction of this species’ habitat may be particularly high because clearance of lowland forests typically occurs first in deforestation schemes due to the relative ease of approach and the presence of high-quality timber. [25] Extensive habitat destruction has also occurred through flooding of lowland forest following the construction of reservoirs, as epitomised by the Chiew Larn Dam project in Southern Thailand. [4] Because this stork is a lowland specialist, high-elevation forest remaining intact after destruction and fragmentation of lowland habitat is unsuitable, so that transmigration to higher altitude forests is unlikely to be a viable escape solution. [4]

Storm's stork is possibly not strongly directly affected by habitat fragmentation through deforestation. [21] It may actually be somewhat tolerant of fragmentation because it could fly great distances in search of new habitat and be relatively unaffected by the open land matrix which it overflies. [21] However, this is probably not a favourable situation for the species, and the exact maximum distances it will travel to reach new habitat are currently unknown. [21] A larger impact of deforestation on the Storm's stork is more likely to be the decrease in freshwater faunal prey abundance and diversity resulting from increased sedimentation, nutrient loads and water temperatures after logging. [10] [26] This loss of freshwater taxa would in turn decrease food availability for this stork at its foraging sites. Road building through the forests to access logging areas creates similar problems by contributing to soil erosion, thereby also decreasing freshwater prey diversity. [10] The large canopy gaps created through logging also lead to drier abiotic conditions in the cleared areas than under dense canopy, which would render these areas unsuitable for food taxa of the Storm's stork such as amphibians and invertebrates that require wet substrates to live on. [21] This is another likely contributor to the decrease in food taxa abundance after forest clearing.

A secondary threat to this species is hunting by humans. [2] [4] [10] Hunting of this species by local people for food may have been happening before large-scale human encroachment onto its habitat to exploit the land. [4] However, extensive land exploitation increases human activities that attract non-native hunters to these areas, so that hunting of this species through direct persecution has also appeared to increase as a side-effect of the direct impacts of habitat destruction. [2] This was probably the case during extensive flooding of lowland forest in Southern Thailand during the Chiew Larn Dam project. [4] This species is also extremely sensitive to human intrusions. If humans come within sight of the nest, the adult abandons the nest and does not return until 2–3 hours after the intruder departs. [10] Anthropogenic noise sources such as from motorboats and chainsaws may also affect this stork; in response to such noises that penetrate the forest matrix, adult birds have been observed to press their head and body into the nest with only the eyes showing. [10]

Natural enemies of chicks and nesting adults are believed to include raptors such as crested serpent eagles Spilornis cheela , monkeys and corvids. [2] If these organisms approach the nest, the parent spreads its wings over the nestlings to protect them. [2] This nest covering display is similar to that observed in the maguari stork. [7]

Another minor threat is the capture of individuals for the international zoo trade, which increased markedly in the late 1980s. [2] Although captivity of Storm's storks may be a solution to support the global population, these birds may be unsuitable to reintroduce to their natural habitat because they have become too tame. [4] In Singapore, the price of this species on bird markets doubled ($300 to $600) in the early 1990s. [2] However, there is no evidence that they have international trade value. [10]

Relationship to humans

This stork is sometimes hunted for food, either by native forest dwellers or non-natives who have been attracted to the area by large-scale land exploitation projects. [2] Although there is a relatively low human population density in areas of undisturbed forest habitat of this species, these people concentrate on gleaning forest products and poaching wildlife. During these activities, Storm's storks are occasionally caught for food either directly by people who extract latex from the jelutong tree, or in baited traps for the monitor lizard Varanus serator . [10]

Individuals of this species have appeared in many zoological institutions such as in Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia and Walsrode in Germany. [2] However, the only two zoos where this species has successfully bred are Zoo Negara, Malaysia; and San Diego Wild Animal Park, California. [23]

Status

The population of this notably rare species has been thought to be in recent rapid decline, primarily due to clearance of its natural habitat to make way for oil palm plantations and logging activities. [1] It has probably never been common, even before extensive habitat destruction from increased anthropogenic land exploitation. [4] [14]

It has been classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1994. [1] The total population has been estimated to number 400-500 wild individuals. [1] Of these individuals, 150 are estimated to live in Malaysia; and an estimated 250 in Indonesia. [1] This species is legally protected in Indonesia, Sarawak and Thailand. [1] Although such protection has previously not been rigorously enforced, [2] this stork has been recorded in numerous protected areas throughout its range, especially in Kalimantan, on Sumatra and in Malaysia. [1]

This species requires extensive areas of dense lowland forest over which to forage, [21] so that the best solution to protect this species from extinction would be the large-scale establishment of protected areas holding undisturbed lowland forest and riparian features. [2] However, because this stork is very secretive, it has proved difficult to investigate its biology and ecology. Although it is almost certainly negatively affected by deforestation, little continues to be known about the exact extent of its responses to anthropogenic changes in its native habitat. [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stork</span> Type of wading bird

Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long, stout bills. They belong to the family called Ciconiidae, and make up the order Ciconiiformes. Ciconiiformes previously included a number of other families, such as herons and ibises, but those families have been moved to other orders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White stork</span> Species of bird

The white stork is a large bird in the stork family, Ciconiidae. Its plumage is mainly white, with black on the bird's wings. Adults have long red legs and long pointed red beaks, and measure on average 100–115 cm (39–45 in) from beak tip to end of tail, with a 155–215 cm (61–85 in) wingspan. The two subspecies, which differ slightly in size, breed in Europe, northwestern Africa, southwestern Asia and southern Africa. The white stork is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa from tropical Sub-Saharan Africa to as far south as South Africa, or on the Indian subcontinent. When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west, because the air thermals on which it depends for soaring do not form over water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black stork</span> Large migratory bird in the family Ciconiidae

The black stork is a large bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Measuring on average 95 to 100 cm from beak tip to end of tail with a 145-to-155 cm (57-to-61 in) wingspan, the adult black stork has mainly black plumage, with white underparts, long red legs and a long pointed red beak. A widespread but uncommon species, it breeds in scattered locations across Europe, and east across the Palearctic to the Pacific Ocean. It is a long-distance migrant, with European populations wintering in tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asian populations in the Indian subcontinent. When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing broad expanses of the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east, the Strait of Sicily in the center, or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west. An isolated, non-migratory, population occurs in Southern Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian woolly-necked stork</span> Species of bird

The Asian woolly-necked stork or Asian woollyneck is a species of large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It breeds singly, or in small loose colonies. It is distributed in a wide variety of habitats including marshes in forests, agricultural areas, and freshwater wetlands across Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser adjutant</span> Species of bird

The lesser adjutant is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. Like other members of its genus, it has a bare neck and head. It is however more closely associated with wetland habitats where it is solitary and is less likely to scavenge than the related greater adjutant. It is a widespread species found from India through Southeast Asia to Java.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-necked stork</span> Species of bird

The black-necked stork is a tall long-necked wading bird in the stork family. It is a resident species across the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia with a disjunct population in Australia. It lives in wetland habitats and near fields of certain crops such as rice and wheat where it forages for a wide range of animal prey. Adult birds of both sexes have a heavy bill and are patterned in white and irridescent blacks, but the sexes differ in the colour of the iris with females sporting yellow irises and males having dark-coloured irises. In Australia, it is known as a jabiru although that name refers to a stork species found in the Americas. It is one of the few storks that are strongly territorial when feeding and breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asian openbill</span> Species of bird

The Asian openbill or Asian openbill stork is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. This distinctive stork is found mainly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is greyish or white with glossy black wings and tail and the adults have a gap between the arched upper mandible and recurved lower mandible. Young birds are born without this gap which is thought to be an adaptation that aids in the handling of snails, their main prey. Although resident within their range, they make long distance movements in response to weather and food availability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-shouldered ibis</span> Species of bird

The white-shouldered ibis is a large species of bird in the family Threskiornithidae. It is native to small regions of Southeast Asia, and is considered to be one of the most threatened bird species on this part of the continent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Otter civet</span> Species of carnivore

The otter civet is a semiaquatic viverrid native to Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. It is believed to be undergoing severe population decline due to habitat destruction and is classified as an endangered species by the IUCN Red List.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milky stork</span> Species of bird

The milky stork is a stork species found predominantly in coastal mangroves around parts of Southeast Asia. It is native to parts of Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. They were once part of the genus Ibis, but is currently included in the genus Mycteria, due to similarities with other storks in that genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Way Kambas National Park</span> National park in Sumatra, Indonesia

Way Kambas National Park is a national park covering 1,300 km2 (500 sq mi) in Lampung province of southern Sumatra, Indonesia. It consists of swamp forest and lowland rain forest, mostly of secondary growth as result of extensive logging in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite decreasing populations, the park still has a few critically endangered Sumatran tigers, Sumatran elephants and Sumatran rhinoceroses. It also hosts over 400 bird species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park</span>

Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park is a national park on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, in the province of South East Sulawesi. It was declared in 1989 and has an area of 1,050 km². The park ranges from sea level to an altitude of 981 m. It contains the Aopa peat swamp, the largest in Sulawesi, and is recognised as a wetland of international importance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crestless fireback</span> Species of bird

The crestless firebacks are a group of two species of bird in the family Phasianidae. They are found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Their natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. They are threatened by habitat destruction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maguari stork</span> Species of bird

The maguari stork is a large species of stork that inhabits seasonal wetlands over much of South America, and is very similar in appearance to the white stork; albeit slightly larger. It is the only species of its genus to occur in the New World and is one of the only three New World stork species, together with the wood stork and the jabiru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky eagle-owl</span> Species of owl

The dusky eagle-owl is an owl species in the family Strigidae that is widespread in South and Southeast Asia. The type specimen used to describe the species was collected on the Coromandel Coast, which was used for the specific epithet. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. The species's extent of occurrence is estimated at 9,250,000 km2 (3,570,000 sq mi). However, volunteer generated databases such as eBird.org suggest that the available extent of occurrence is a vast over-estimate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink-necked green pigeon</span> Species of bird

The pink-necked green pigeon is a species of bird of the pigeon and dove family, Columbidae. It is a common species of Southeast Asia, found from Myanmar and Vietnam south through to the major islands of Indonesia and the Philippines. It is a medium-sized pigeon with predominantly green plumage; only the male has the pink neck that gives the species its name. The species lives in a wide range of forested and human-modified habitats and is particularly found in open habitats. Its diet is dominated by fruit, in particular figs. Pairs lay two eggs in a flimsy twig nest in a tree, shrub, or hedge, and work together to incubate the eggs and raise the chicks. The species is thought to be an important disperser of fruit seeds. The species has adapted well to human changes to the environment, and can be found in crowded cities as long as fruiting trees are present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-naped trogon</span> Species of bird

The red-naped trogon is a species of bird in the family Trogonidae. It is found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sabangau National Park</span> National park in Indonesia

Sabangau National Park is a national park in Central Kalimantan, a province of Indonesia in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo established in 2004. Between 1980 and 1995 the site was a massive logging concessions area. After 1995, the park became a site for illegal logging, which resulted in up to 85 percent of the 568,700-hectare total park area being destroyed. By 2012, less than 1 percent of the park's total area has been reforested and at the current rate, it will take several centuries to restore it to its pre-logged state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sembilang National Park</span>

Sembilang National Park is a national park covering 2,051 km2 along the east coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The park is dominated by swamps as peat forests, like the neighbouring Berbak National Park, and both parks are Ramsar wetlands of international importance. The park is considered to have the most complex shorebird community in the world, with 213 species recorded, and supports the world's largest breeding colony of milky storks. From Palembang to the Sembilang National Park needs one hour drive plus one and a half hour by boat and then one hour overland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African woolly-necked stork</span> Species of bird

The African woolly-necked stork or African woollyneck is a species of large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It breeds singly, or in small loose colonies. It is distributed in a wide variety of habitats including marshes in forests, agricultural areas, and freshwater wetlands across Africa.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 BirdLife International (2017). "Ciconia stormi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2017: e.T22697685A110066434. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22697685A110066434.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Hancock JA, Kuschlan JA, Kahl, MP. 1992. Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press.
  3. Boelens B, Watkins M, Grayson M. 2014. The Eponym Dictionary of Birds. Bloomsbury, UK.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Nakhasathien, S (1987). "The discovery of Storm's stork Ciconia stormi in Thailand". Forktail. 3: 43–49.
  5. 1 2 3 Holmes, DA (1977). "Faunistic notes and further additions to the Sumatran avifauna". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 97: 68–71.
  6. Chasen FN. 1935. Hand List of Malaysian Birds. Bulletin of Raffles Museum 11.
  7. 1 2 3 Kahl, MP (1972). "A revision of the Family Ciconiidae (Aves)". Journal of Zoology. 167 (4): 451–461. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1972.tb01736.x.
  8. Slikas, B (1997). "Phylogeny of the avian family Ciconiidae (storks) based on cytochrome b sequences and DNA-DNA hybridisation distances". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 8 (3): 275–300. doi: 10.1006/mpev.1997.0431 . PMID   9417889.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 oiseauxbirds.com. http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-storm-s-stork.html.Accessed 03/06/16
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Danielsen, F. Kadarisman R; Skov, H; Suwarman, U; Verheugt, WJM (1997). "The Storm's stork Ciconia stormi in Indonesia: breeding biology population and conservation". Ibis. 139: 67–75. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1997.tb04505.x.
  11. 1 2 Smythies BE. 1981. The Birds of Borneo, 3rd Edition. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lampur.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Cutter, P; Boontua, P; Sri-Buarod, K (2007). "A recent record of Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi in Thailand". Forktail. 23: 163–165.
  13. Holmes, DA (1969). "Bird notes from Brunei: December 1967 – September 1968". Sarawak Museum Journal. 17: 399–402.
  14. 1 2 Luthin, CS (1987). "Status of and conservation priorities for the world's stork species". Colonial Waterbirds. 10 (2): 181–202. doi:10.2307/1521258. JSTOR   1521258.
  15. Round P. 1988. Threatened forest birds of Thailand. ICBP Technical Publication Number 8. Cambridge: International Council for Bird Preservation.
  16. BirdLife International. 2001. Threatened birds of Asia: The Birdlife International Red Data Book. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.
  17. 1 2 3 Cheyne, SM; Husson, SJ; Dragiew, M; Thompson, LJ; Adul, Jeffers KA; Limin, SH; Smith, DAE (2014). "Kalimantan's tropical peat-swamp forests are important for Storm's stork (Ciconia stormi) conservation". Journal of Indonesian Natural History. 2: 45–50.
  18. 1 2 3 Rose, M; Posa, C; Marques, DA (2012). "Peat swamp forest birds of the Tuanan research station, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, with notes on habitat specialists". Forktail. 28: 29–37.
  19. 1 2 3 Lambert, FR (1992). "The consequences of selective logging for Bornean lowland forest birds". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 335 (1275): 443–457. Bibcode:1992RSPTB.335..443L. doi:10.1098/rstb.1992.0036.
  20. 1 2 Danielsen F, Heegaard M. 1995. Impact of logging and plantation development on species diversity: a case study from Sumatra. In: Sandbukt Ø. 1995. Management of tropical forests: towards an integrated perspective. Oslo: Centre for Development and the Environment, University of Oslo.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Berdie IJ, 2008. Assessing canopy cover requirements of Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi at multiple scales. Open access thesis. Paper 132.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Meijaard E, Dennis R, Schroor P, Nardiyono, Berdie I, Douglas O, Fuller. 2015. Habitat characteristics of Storm's stork Ciconiia stormi in Indonesian Borneo. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272182067_Habitat_characteristics_of_Storm's_Stork_Ciconia_stormii_in_Indonesian_Borneo. Accessed 30/05/16.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mace, M; Ranger, W; Lewins, E; Atallian, DM; Farley, M (2006). "Breeding and hand-rearing Storm's storks Ciconia stormi at the Zoological Society of San Diego". International Zoo Yearbook. 40: 254–260. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00254.x.
  24. MacKinnon J. Phillips K. 1993. A Field Guide to the Birds of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  25. Dinata, Y; Nugroho, A; Hadir, IA; Linkie, M (2008). "Camera trapping rare and threatened avifauna in west-central Sumatra". Bird Conservation International. 18: 30–37. doi: 10.1017/s0959270908000051 .
  26. Harding, JS; Benfield, EF; Bolstad, PV; Helfman, GS; Jones, EBD (1998). "Stream biodiversity: the ghost of land use past". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (25): 14843–14847. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9514843H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.25.14843 . PMC   24537 . PMID   9843977.