The Levee, Chicago

Last updated

The Levee, Chicago
Vice district
South Dearborn Street, Chicago, c. 1911.jpg
South Dearborn Street in the Levee, c. 1911. The Everleigh Club, a notorious high-priced brothel, is on the far right.
W.T. Stead 19th Precinct 1st Ward Chicago 1894 Cornell CUL PJM 1115 01.jpg
Map of the 19th Precinct and 1st Ward at Chicago by Stead W. T, in his book "If Christ came to Chicago! A Plea for the Union of All Who Love in the Service of All Who Suffer", records 46 saloons, 37 "houses of ill-fame", and 11 pawnbrokers in 1894.
Chicago locator map.png
Red pog.svg
Location of the Levee within Chicago
Coordinates: 41°51′22″N87°37′44″W / 41.856°N 87.629°W / 41.856; -87.629
CountryUnited States
State Illinois
City Chicago

The Levee District was the red-light district of Chicago from the 1880s until 1912, when police raids shut it down. The district, like many frontier town red-light districts, got its name from its proximity to wharves in the city. The Levee district encompassed four blocks in Chicago's South Loop area, between 18th and 22nd streets. [1] It was home to many brothels, saloons, dance halls, and the famed Everleigh Club. Prostitution boomed in the Levee District, and it was not until the Chicago Vice Commission submitted a report on the city's vice districts that it was shut down. [2]

Contents

History

The Chicago nightlife district was initially located downtown in the First District. However, after the Great Fire of Chicago in 1871, it moved to the south of the city. Before 1890, the area known as Customs House Levee became a gathering place for players and pimps, and was one of the most notorious criminal districts in Chicago. According to one newspaper, [3] Chicago was at that time considered "the most violent, dirtiest cities – loud, lawless, ugly, offensive, godless; an oversized, stupid village." In cooperation with the Chicago Outfit, corrupt city councilors "Hinky Dink" Michael Kenna and "Bathhouse" John Coughlin, precipitated the rapid rise of vice in the district. From 1893 the pair organized a protection racket in which game parlors and brothels in The Levee had to pay protection money. [4] Kenna and Coughlin formed a group of corrupt city councilors called "Gray Wolves", which was active from 1890 to 1930. [5]

The Levee District was home to many brothels, saloons, dance halls, and similar places. [6] Chicago's first brothels were built on Wells Street. Among the most famous establishments were:

The lowest level of the brothels formed the simple houses in the Bed Bug Row, spanning from Dearborn Avenue and Federal to 19th Street and Archer. The women of color who worked there offered $0.25 services, often under poor hygienic conditions. The Bed Bug Row had a similar bad reputation to the "Cribs" in New Orleans or the "cowyards" [12] in San Francisco. [5]

In order to receive protection, Levee inhabitants would attend the biggest event in the district, the annual First Ward Ball. There, Levee residents gathered to celebrate the triumphs brought to them by "Hinky Dink" Kenna and "Bathhouse" Coughlin. Madams, corrupt businessmen, dance-hall owners, saloon owners, prostitutes, brothel owners, and gamblers attended the event to support these aldermen. The money raised came from the purchase of tickets to the event and of alcohol.

When anti-vice reformers protested the ball, Kenna justified it as benefiting the people in the district through educational and community programs. The First Ward Ball of 1908 was the most significant because it was the last one to be attended by the Levee's most prominent figures. That year, anti-vice reformers tried to stop the ball by bombing its venue, The Coliseum. The ball was uninterrupted, however, in 1909, anti-vice reformers worked towards getting the city to revoke the event's alcohol license. They succeeded, and only about 3,000 people attended, less than a quarter of the attendance at the previous balls. That year, reformers like the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) worked towards stopping events like these, claiming that they harmed the families in the Levee. [13]

Anti-vice reformers

Anti-"white slavery" parade through Chicago's Levee district on October 18, 1909, led by British evangelist Gypsy Smith. Gypsy Smith's parade through the Levee, Chicago, 1909.jpg
Anti-"white slavery" parade through Chicago's Levee district on October 18, 1909, led by British evangelist Gypsy Smith.
A member of the anti-vice Midnight Mission (left), and Levee district prostitutes walking the street (c.1911). Midnight Mission and Levee prostitutes c. 1911.jpg
A member of the anti-vice Midnight Mission (left), and Levee district prostitutes walking the street (c.1911).

Devout Christian communities protested at the beginning of the 20th century against prostitution and gambling in the Levee. At its peak, up to 5,000 prostitutes worked in the local brothels. Increasingly, the public became aware of "white slavery" cases in which girls from rural areas fell into the hands of pimps and were systematically forced into prostitution. An especially sensational case was that of Madame Mary Hastings, who inflicted torture and forced prostitution on minor girls in her brothel Custom House Place on Jackson Street. [14]

The Levee District's success in vice came to an end when reformers such as the WCTU and Chicago Vice Commission (CVC) (established by Carter Harrison, Jr.) publicly exposed the issues of white slavery and alcohol abuse. [2] The WCTU had a "department of rescue" to save women forced into slavery. They also had a "department of social purity", which upheld sexual consent laws. The WCTU paid investigators to conduct studies on forced prostitution in Midwest lumber camps. This in turn helped them publish a journal on the stories of women working as prostitutes in Chicago (Levee District), San Francisco, and New York. [15]

The CVC focused on terminating vice districts, and on investigating the conditions for women in the Levee. The members spoke to prostitutes, police, and neighborhood organizations. They published the report The Social Evil in Chicago, which included prostitution statistics and recommendations for improvement. The report concluded that about 5,000 professional prostitutes worked in Chicago, and about five million men were receiving services from them, for which the women received about $25 weekly. They were mostly uneducated and unskilled, and they had little to no opportunities for economic advancement. The report was read around the world and influenced vice commissions in 43 cities to close their own vice districts. [16]

Closure of The Levee

The difficult process to close down the entire Levee District began on January 9, 1910, when Nathaniel Ford Moore died in Victoria "Vic" Shaw's brothel. She wanted to frame Minna Everleigh for the death, but Everleigh found out about Moore before Shaw got the chance. Shaw was forced to call the police to report the death after which her brothel was closed. A year later, on October 3, 1911, the state's attorney issued warrants for 135 people associated with the Levee, including Big Jim Colosimo, Ed Weiss, Roy Jones and Vic Shaw. The warrants shut down halls, saloons and brothels. Many people were arrested within the brothels; in Marie Blanchey's brothel, 20 women and 30 men were arrested. Word spread about corruption in the government, and on October 24, 1911, Mayor Carter Harrison ordered the closure of the Everleigh Club. It was shut down the following day. Many businesses in the Levee District closed in 1911, but the district held on for two more years. One of the last brothels to close was Freiberg's Dance Hall, which celebrated its last night on August 24, 1914. [17] [18]

Timeline

James "Big Jim" Colosimo James "Big Jim" Colosimo.jpg
James "Big Jim" Colosimo
1906 Blanchard's map of Chicago 1906 Blanchard's map of Chicago.jpg
1906 Blanchard's map of Chicago

Associated notable persons

Caricature of "Lords of the Levee" - "Bathhouse John" Coughlin and "Hinky Dink" Kenna Lords of the levee.jpg
Caricature of "Lords of the Levee" – "Bathhouse John" Coughlin and "Hinky Dink" Kenna
The Everleigh Club at 2131-2133 South Dearborn Street. Everleigh Club exterior.jpg
The Everleigh Club at 2131–2133 South Dearborn Street.
Brothel "The Paris", 2101 Armor Street. The establishment was run by Maurice Van Bever, who was accused of "white slavery" The Paris brothel, Chicago c. 1911.jpg
Brothel "The Paris", 2101 Armor Street. The establishment was run by Maurice Van Bever, who was accused of "white slavery"
Minister and anti-vice crusader Ernest A. Bell preaching on the street in Levee district Ernest Bell preaching in the Levee.jpg
Minister and anti-vice crusader Ernest A. Bell preaching on the street in Levee district

Prostitution in Chicago after the Levee District

Although the Levee District had closed down in 1912, prostitution continued to be a problem in Chicago. The closing of the Levee had initiated changes throughout the city's sexual commerce. There were no brothels, but that didn't stop many men and women. They moved from brothels and saloons to cabarets, nightclubs and other nighttime scenes. Solicitation was still available, and the sex entrepreneurs were still willing to pay law enforcement to keep quiet.

The election of Chicago Mayor William "Big Bill" Hale Thompson in 1915 reactivated the illegal business in the Levee. Many of the brothels were reopened as hotels, saloons or cabarets. "Big Jim" Colosimo and his wife Victoria Moresco took over three brothels and control of the district. His Colosimo's Café, frequented by famous guests such as Enrico Caruso, became the center of high society in Chicago. Due to his Italian origins, Colosimo became the target of Sicilian blackmail bands like the Black Hand Gang (La Mano Nera), which increasingly threatened him. For fear of kidnapping, he sought shelter with his co-relatives Johnny Torrio in New York City. Torrio, a cousin of Victoria Moresco, [66] sent Al Capone to reorganize the situation there. Capone began his career in the restaurant in this district The Four Deuces (2222 South Wabash). [67] The four-storey brick building, which also housed an office and a brothel upstairs, was initially owned by Jonny Torrio. [68] It is believed that he tortured his rivals in the basement of the "Four Deuces". [69] [70]

In the beginning of the 1920s, vice syndicates of the time moved to the suburbs where law enforcement was easier to persuade. [71] Although laws were established to control or eliminate prostitution, they were not backed up by the court system. "In many cases, the defendant did not appear in trial in which case the charges were dropped and the bond seized." [72] It was shown that even when they were sentenced, none of the prostitutes were sentenced correctly. Only 15 of the 320 cases were found guilty in a group of cases they had selected. [72] In the final decades of the 20th century, establishments similar to brothels reentered the city. New businesses like peepshows, massage parlors, and bars featuring live showgirls opened. In the 1980s, however, most were shut down and turned into condominiums, restaurants, and high-end retail stores. [71]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Everleigh Club</span> Brothel which operated in Chicago

The Everleigh Club was a high-class brothel which operated in Chicago, Illinois, from February 1900 until October 1911. It was owned and operated by Ada and Minna Everleigh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Kenna (politician)</span> American politician

Michael Kenna, also known as "Hinky Dink", was an American politician who served as alderman of Chicago's 1st Ward from 1897 to 1923 and again from 1939 to 1943. In addition to his position as alderman he was committeeman of the 1st Ward for the Democratic Party from 1893 to 1944. Representing the Chicago Loop and later its environs in such capacities, he led what was often called the "world's richest ward". He and his partner, fellow 1st Ward alderman "Bathhouse John" Coughlin, controlled the ward for most of the first half of the 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Storyville, New Orleans</span> Former red-light district in Louisiana, US

Storyville was the red-light district of New Orleans, Louisiana, from 1897 to 1917. It was established by municipal ordinance under the New Orleans City Council, to regulate prostitution. Sidney Story, a city alderman, wrote guidelines and legislation to control prostitution within the city. The ordinance designated an area of the city in which prostitution, although still nominally illegal, was tolerated or regulated. The area was originally referred to as "The District", but its nickname, "Storyville", soon caught on, much to the chagrin of Alderman Story. It was bound by the streets of North Robertson, Iberville, Basin, and St. Louis Streets. It was located by a train station, making it a popular destination for travelers throughout the city, and became a centralized attraction in the heart of New Orleans. Only a few of its remnants are now visible. The neighborhood lies in Faubourg Tremé and the majority of the land was repurposed for public housing. It is well known for being the home of jazz musicians, most notably Louis Armstrong as a minor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tenderloin, Manhattan</span> Area of New York City during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

The Tenderloin was an entertainment and red-light district in the heart of the New York City borough of Manhattan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Johnny Torrio</span> Italian-American mob boss

John Donato Torrio was an Italian-born American mobster who helped build the Chicago Outfit in the 1920s later inherited by his protégé Al Capone. Torrio proposed a National Crime Syndicate in the 1930s and later became an adviser to Lucky Luciano and his Luciano crime family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Big Jim Colosimo</span> American mobster (1878–1920)

Vincenzo Colosimo, known as James "Big Jim" Colosimo or as "Diamond Jim", was an Italian-American Mafia crime boss who emigrated from Calabria, Italy, in 1895 and built a criminal empire in Chicago based on prostitution, gambling and racketeering. He gained power through petty crime and heading a chain of brothels. From 1902 until his death in 1920, he led a gang known after his death as the Chicago Outfit. Colosimo was assassinated on May 11, 1920, and no one was ever charged with his murder. Johnny Torrio, an enforcer whom Colosimo imported in 1909 from New York, seized control of Colosimo's businesses after his death. Al Capone, a close associate of Torrio, has been accused of involvement in Colosimo's murder but was not yet in Chicago at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Block, Baltimore</span> Human settlement in Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America

Baltimore's The Block is a stretch on the 400 block of East Baltimore Street in Baltimore, Maryland, containing several strip clubs, sex shops, and other adult entertainment merchants. During the 19th century, Baltimore was filled with brothels, and in the first half of the 20th century, it was famous for its burlesque houses. It was a noted starting point and stop-over for many noted burlesque dancers, including the likes of Blaze Starr.

Chicago, Illinois, has a long history of organized crime and was famously home to the American mafia figure Al Capone. This article contains a list of major events related to organized crime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barbary Coast, San Francisco</span> Red-light district in San Francisco (1849-1917)

The Barbary Coast was a red-light district during the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries in San Francisco that featured dance halls, concert saloons, bars, jazz clubs, variety shows, and brothels. Its nine block area was centered on a three block stretch of Pacific Street, now Pacific Avenue, between Montgomery and Stockton Streets. Pacific Street was the first street to cut through the hills of San Francisco, starting near Portsmouth Square and continuing east to the first shipping docks at Buena Vista Cove.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prostitution in the United States</span> Overview of the legality and practice of prostitution in the U.S.

Prostitution is illegal in the vast majority of the United States as a result of state laws rather than federal laws. It is, however, legal in some rural counties within the state of Nevada. Additionally, it is decriminalized to sell sex in the state of Maine, but illegal to buy sex. Prostitution nevertheless occurs elsewhere in the country.

Michael "The Pike" Heitler was a Prohibition gangster involved in prostitution for the Chicago Outfit. A Jewish mob boss born in what is today Ukraine, Heitler is buried at Waldheim Cemetery Co. in Forest Park, Illinois.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ike Bloom</span> American businessman, cabaret and nightclub owner

Ike Bloom was an American businessman, cabaret and nightclub owner in Chicago from the turn of the 20th century and throughout Prohibition. An early organized crime figure in Chicago, he was an associate of "Big Jim" Colosimo and owner of some of the city's most popular nightclubs such as Midnight Frolics and Freiberg's, a well known dance hall in The Levee vice district at 20 E 22nd St. The Midnight Frolics was the club in which comedian Joe E. Lewis began his career in 1926.

James Cosmano also known as "Sunny Jim" was a leader of the Black Hand street gang in pre-Prohibition Chicago who tried to extort money from the South Side gang.

The Sporting District was an area near 16th and Harney Streets in Omaha, Nebraska where city boss Tom Dennison kept the majority of his gambling, drinking and prostitution interests from the late 19th century until the end of his reign in 1933. "Cowboy" James Dahlman was reputedly voted to the first of eight terms as mayor of Omaha because he was more tolerant of the Dennison's "Sporting District" in the middle of the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ada and Minna Everleigh</span> Sisters who ran the Everleigh Club brothel in Chicago from 1900 to 1911

Ada and Minna Everleigh, born Ada and Minna Simms, were two sisters who operated the Everleigh Club, a high-priced brothel in the Levee District of Chicago during the first decade of the twentieth century. Ada, the eldest, was born in Greene County, Virginia on February 15, 1864, and died in Charlottesville, Virginia on January 5, 1960. Minna was born in Greene County on July 13, 1866 and died in New York City on September 16, 1948.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">San Antonio Sporting District</span> Former red-light district

The Sporting District was a red-light district in the U.S. city of San Antonio, Texas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was established by the city council to manage prostitution in the city. For a time it was one of the nation's largest vice districts with venues ranging from brothels to gambling halls. The area was officially shut down in 1941 resulting from the mobilization for World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Josephine Airey</span> Irish-American madam and businesswoman

Josephine "Chicago Joe" Airey, was an Irish-born American prostitute, madam, and proprietor of brothels, dance halls, a variety theatre, and saloons in Helena, Montana. She eventually became the most influential landowner in Helena. She was known as "Chicago Joe" Hensley following her marriage to James T. Hensley.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black Hand (Chicago)</span> Criminal tactic used by gangsters

Black Hand extortion was a criminal tactic used by gangsters based in major cities in the United States. In Chicago, Black Hand extortion began around 1900 and had all but faded away by 1970, replaced by the Mafia. The Mafia was initially organized by Johnny Torrio and further organized by Al Capone into the extant Chicago Outfit sometime later. Black Handers in Chicago were mostly Italian men from Calabria and Sicily who would send anonymous extortion notes to their victims emblazoned with a feared old country symbol: the "Black Hand". The Black Hand was a precursor of organized crime, although it is still a tactic practiced by the Mafia and used in organized crime to this day. The Black Hand gangsters of this time period differed from the Mafia by lacking formally structured hierarchies and codes of conduct, and many were essentially one-man operations. Black Hand blackmail was also common in New York, Boston, and New Orleans. Victims would be threatened with being beaten, shot, or have their place of business bombed if they did not pay. Starting around 1909, Black Hand activity was causing difficulties for mob boss Big Jim Colosimo, a former Black Hand gangster and owner of brothels throughout Chicago. Colosimo's life was being threatened with demands for cash to ensure his physical safety. In an effort to fix the problem, he recruited Johnny Torrio, who was a member of New York's Five Points Gang at the time, to come to Chicago. Torrio would later become the famous successor to Big Jim Colosimo and mentor Al Capone as the organized crime ruler of Chicago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dumas Brothel</span> Historic bordello in Butte, Montana

The Dumas Brothel was a brothel in Butte, Montana. The brothel was founded by French-Canadian brothers Joseph and Arthur Nadeau in 1890 and named after the nominal owner, Delia Nadeau, née Dumas, who was Joseph's wife. It grew considerably through the years, with the miners employed by the city's copper mines often patronizing the establishment. After several changes of the "madams" and continuing pressure from authorities, the brothel closed in 1982, described as "a rare, intact commentary on social history". At the time of its closure, it was the longest operating brothel in the United States, having operated years after prostitution was made illegal. After closing, the brothel changed hands several times, eventually becoming a tourist attraction owned and managed by a series of Butte residents.

Young black women of the Harlem Renaissance lived with uncertainty of their rights and their roles at a time in which women began to question their sexuality in fear of facing the scrutiny. The women of Harlem began questioning their equal rights and freedom of sexual expression. One occupation that flourished was prostitution. In the early 1900s, New York City thrived with prostitution. Amidst the artistic spectrum of the Harlem Renaissance, the occupation of prostitution created an underlying tension for African American women and their right to solicit their bodies for profit. Preceding World War One, American ideology of sexuality was restrained by religion and denial. Sex was a private matter and was deemed taboo outside of procreation. Idealized notions of the sexual union, however, made non-procreative sex lustful and demeaning. This way of thinking immediately pushes prostitution into the spectrum of being a sinful act and portraying the act in a demeaning manner.

References

  1. Baldwin, Peter C. Vice Districts. Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  2. 1 2 Blair 2010, p. 146.
  3. Kobler 1992, p. 38.
  4. 1 2 3 Kobler 1992, p. 31.
  5. 1 2 "The Levee District". Chicagology. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  6. Blair 2010, p. 57.
  7. Kobler 1992, p. 30.
  8. Parnell, Sean. "Bucket of Blood in Memoriam". www.chibarproject.com. Chicago Bar Project. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  9. Blair 2010, p. 137.
  10. 1 2 Kendall (August 30, 2008). "Freiberg's Dance Hall". The Chicago Crime Scenes Project. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  11. Lafsky, Melissa (August 1, 2007). "The Golden Age of Chicago Prostitution: A Q&A with Karen Abbott". Freakonomics. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  12. Chandler 2014, pp. 249–250.
  13. Kendall (May 9, 2009). "First Ward Ball". The Chicago Crime Scenes Project. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  14. 1 2 Kendall (September 2, 2008). "Custom House Place". The Chicago Crime Scenes Project. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  15. Kubal 2007.
  16. Linehan, Mary. "Vice Commissions". Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  17. Abbott 2007, p. 308.
  18. Asbury 1986.
  19. Schoenberg 1993, pp. 37–39.
  20. "Giacomo "Big Jim" Colosimo". Scena Criminis (in Italian). March 17, 2014. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  21. Kobler 1992, p. 35.
  22. 1 2 3 Schoenberg 1993, p. 46.
  23. 1 2 Kobler 1992, p. 34.
  24. "Dope and Death doomed Levee "Queen" recalls". Chicago Tribune. March 16, 1949.
  25. Schoenberg 1993, p. 27.
  26. Kobler 1992, p. 32.
  27. "O'Brien starts Levee clean-up. For first time in Years South Side Saloons close at 1". Chicago Tribune. December 11, 1911.
  28. Schoenberg 1993, p. 49.
  29. "Ed White Resort closed by Mayor". Chicago Tribune. October 22, 1913.
  30. "Freiberg's Dance Hall. Last Stronghold of the Levee". Chicago Tribune. July 23, 1914.
  31. Blair 2010, p. 1.
  32. Blair 2010, pp. 123, 38.
  33. Gale, Neil (January 2, 2017). "The History of Chicago's "Red-Light" Vice Districts". The Digital Research Library of Illinois History Journal. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  34. Abbott 2007, p. 58.
  35. "The Story of Bathhouse John". Chicago Tribune. May 24, 1953.
  36. Abbott 2007, p. 206.
  37. 1 2 "Everleigh Club". Chicagology. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
  38. 1 2 "The ladies Everleigh". Chicago Tribune. January 21, 1979.
  39. "24 Strange And Bizarre Facts About Ada And Minna Everleigh". Tons Of Facts. December 8, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  40. Asbury 2003, pp. 256–258.
  41. Lombardo 2012, p. 48.
  42. 1 2 3 Abbott 2007, p. 179.
  43. Sann, Paul. "The Roaring Twenties". The Lawless Decade. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  44. "How Did Big Jim Colosimo Get Killed? – Chicago Outfit". NCS. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  45. "When the Outfit Ran Chicago, Vol I:The "Big Jim" Colosimo Era". D&R (in Turkish). Retrieved December 10, 2018.
  46. "White Slave Trade: "The Paris," headquarters of the notorious Maurice Van Bever Gang". Look and Learn History Picture Library. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  47. Donovan 2010, p. 75.
  48. "Laws Force felt by White Slaver". Chicago Tribune. October 10, 1909.
  49. "Member Betrays Band of Panders". Chicago Tribune. October 24, 1909. Retrieved May 5, 2019 via The Mead Project.
  50. Kendall (November 6, 2008). "Colosimo's Home". The Chicago Crime Scenes Project. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  51. Abbott 2007, p. 62.
  52. Blair 2010, p. 140.
  53. Abbott 2007, p. 92.
  54. "Ernest A. Bell papers 1876–1934". chsmedia.org. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  55. Abbott 2007, p. 134.
  56. Abbott 2007, pp. 161, 181.
  57. 1 2 3 Abbott 2007, p. 161.
  58. Abbott 2007, p. 90.
  59. Abbott 2007, p. 113.
  60. Taylor 2009.
  61. Abbott, Karen (August 12, 2007). "Sin in the Second City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  62. "Origin of White Slavery". yourhometown.org. Archived from the original on March 12, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  63. Schneider 2016, p. 128.
  64. Luckhurst, Roger (April 10, 2012). "WT Stead, a forgotten victim of Titanic". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on April 13, 2012. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  65. Bakk-Hansen, Heidi (April 20, 2017). "The Notorious Madame Gaine". Zenith City Online. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  66. Schoenberg 1993, p. 48.
  67. "The Four Deuces (2222 South Wabash)". My Al Capone Museum. May 2009. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  68. Schoenberg 1993, p. 55.
  69. "THE LIFE AND CRIMES OF AL CAPONE". Chicago Tribune. August 26, 1997. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  70. Eig 2014, p. 19.
  71. 1 2 Blair, Cynthia M. Prostitution. Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
  72. 1 2 Swanson, Stevenson (November 19, 1981). "Courts fail to back city's tough prostitution law: study: Courts fail to back city prostitution law". Chicago Tribune. p. N1 via ProQuest.

Bibliography