White-eye

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White-eyes
Silvereyepairofjuveniles.jpg
Silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), adult (right) and juveniles
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Superfamily: Sylvioidea
Family: Zosteropidae
Bonaparte, 1853
Genera

See text

Indian white-eye, Zosterops palpebrosus Zosterops palpebrosus1.jpg
Indian white-eye, Zosterops palpebrosus

The white-eyes are a family, Zosteropidae, of small passerine birds native to tropical, subtropical and temperate Sub-Saharan Africa, southern and eastern Asia, and Australasia. White-eyes inhabit most tropical islands in the Indian Ocean, the western Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Guinea. Discounting some widespread members of the genus Zosterops , most species are endemic to single islands or archipelagos. The silvereye, Zosterops lateralis, naturally colonised New Zealand, where it is known as the "wax-eye" or tauhou ("stranger"), from 1855. The silvereye has also been introduced to the Society Islands in French Polynesia, while the Japanese white-eye has been introduced to Hawaii.

Contents

Characteristics

White-eyes are mostly of undistinguished appearance, the plumage being generally greenish olive above, and pale grey below. Some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast, or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their common name implies, many species have a conspicuous ring of tiny white feathers around their eyes. [1] The scientific name of the group also reflects this latter feature, being derived from the Ancient Greek for "girdle-eye". They have rounded wings and strong legs. Like many other nectarivorous birds, they have slender, pointed bills, and brush-tipped tongues. [1] [2] The size ranges up to 15 cm (5.9 in) in length.

All the species of white-eyes are sociable, forming large flocks that only separate on the approach of the breeding season. They build trees nests and lay two to four eggs which are usually pale blue. [3] Though mainly insectivorous, they eat nectar and fruits of various kinds. The silvereye can be a problem in Australian vineyards, by piercing the grape allowing infection or insect damage to follow. [4]

Systematics

The family Zosteropidae was introduced (as a subfamily Zosteropinae) in 1853 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. [5] [6] The white-eyes were long considered a distinct family Zosteropidae because they are rather homogeneous in morphology and ecology, leading to little adaptive radiation and divergence.

The genus Apalopteron , formerly placed in the Meliphagidae, was transferred to the white eyes in 1995 on genetic and behavioral evidence. It differs much in appearance from the typical white-eyes, Zosterops , but is approached by some Micronesian taxa; its color pattern is fairly unusual save the imperfect white eye-ring. [7]

In 2003, Alice Cibois published the results of her study of mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S/16S rRNA sequence data. According to her results, the white-eyes were likely to form a clade also containing the yuhinas, which were until then placed with the Old World babblers, a large "wastebin" family. [8] Previous molecular studies (e.g. Sibley & Ahlquist 1990, Barker et al. 2002) had together with the morphological evidence tentatively placed white-eyes as the Timaliidae's closest relatives already. But some questions remained, mainly because the white-eyes are all very similar birds in habitus and habits, while the Old World babblers are very diverse (because, as we now know, the group as formerly defined was polyphyletic).

Combined with the yuhinas (and possibly other Timaliidae), the limits of the white-eye clade to the "true" Old World babblers becomes indistinct. Therefore, the current (early 2007) opinion weighs towards merging the group into the Timaliidae, perhaps as a subfamily ("Zosteropinae"). Few white-eyes have been thoroughly studied with the new results in mind, however, and almost all of these are from Zosterops which even at this point appears over-lumped. Also, many "Old World babblers" remain in unresolved relationships. Whether there can be a clear delimitation of a white-eye subfamily or even a young or emerging family is a question that requires a more comprehensive study of both this group and Timaliidae to resolve (Jønsson & Fjeldså 2006).

For example, a revision of the yuhinas and the genus Stachyris (Cibois et al. 2002), based on the same genes as Cibois (2003), revealed that the Philippine species placed in the latter genus by some were actually yuhinas. However, when the review by Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006) was published, no study had tried to propose a phylogeny for the newly defined yuhinas including the white eyes. Therefore, Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006) give a rather misleading phylogeny for the group. It appears as if the yuhinas are polyphyletic, with the white-collared yuhina being closer to the ancestor of the Zosterops white-eyes than to other yuhinas including the species moved from Stachyris (Cibois et al. 2002).

In the past, the Madanga (Madanga ruficollis) was included in this family but studies now place it as an atypical member of the Motacillidae. [9]

The cladogram below showing the relationships between families is based on a study of babblers by Tianlong Cai and collaborators published in 2019. [10] [11]

Pycnonotidae – bulbuls (160 species)

Sylviidae – sylviid babblers (34 species)

Paradoxornithidae – parrotbills and myzornis (37 species)

Zosteropidae – white-eyes (146 species)

Timaliidae – tree babblers (56 species)

Pellorneidae – ground babblers (65 species)

Alcippeidae – Alcippe fulvettas (10 species)

Leiothrichidae – laughingthrushes and allies (133 species)

The cladogram below showing the relationships between the genera is based on the study by Carl Oliveros and collaborators that was published in 2021. The genera Apalopteron , Tephrozosterops and Rukia were not sampled in this study. The genus Megazosterops was found to be nested in Heleia . [12] The earlier study by Cai and collaborators found a generally similar phylogeny but with Cleptornis as sister to Heleia. Cai's study found that Apalopteron was nested within Heleia with weak support and that Tephrozosterops was sister to Zosterops . [10]

Zosteropidae

Parayuhina – white-collared yuhina

Staphida – yuhinas (3 species)

Yuhina – yuhinas (7 species)

Cleptornis – golden white-eye

Dasycrotapha – babblers (3 species)

Sterrhoptilus – babblers (4 species)

Zosterornis – babblers (5 species)

Heleia and Megazosterops – white-eyes (11 species altogether)

Zosterops – white-eyes, speirops and the silvereye (110 species)

List of genera

The family contains 149 species divided into 13 genera: [11]

White-collared yuhina (Parayuhina diademata), a close relative of the white-eyes Yuhina diademata - 20060115.jpg
White-collared yuhina (Parayuhina diademata), a close relative of the white-eyes

Related Research Articles

Old World warblers are a large group of birds formerly grouped together in the bird family Sylviidae. They are not closely related to the New World warblers. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and were the source of much taxonomic confusion. Two families were split out initially, the cisticolas into Cisticolidae and the kinglets into Regulidae. In the past ten years they have been the subject of much research and many species are now placed into other families, including the Acrocephalidae, Cettiidae, Phylloscopidae, and Megaluridae. In addition some species have been moved into existing families or have not yet had their placement fully resolved. A smaller number of warblers, together with some babblers formerly placed in the family Timaliidae and the parrotbills, are retained in a much smaller family Sylviidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Typical warbler</span> Genus of birds

The typical warblers are small birds belonging to the genus Sylvia in the "Old World warbler" family Sylviidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old World babbler</span> Family of birds

The Old World babblers or Timaliidae are a family of mostly Old World passerine birds. They are rather diverse in size and coloration, but are characterised by soft fluffy plumage. These are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The timaliids are one of two unrelated groups of birds known as babblers, the other being the Australasian babblers of the family Pomatostomidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrotbill</span> Group of birds

The parrotbills are a family, Paradoxornithidae, of passerine birds that are primarily native to East and Southeast Asia, though feral populations exist elsewhere. They are generally small, long-tailed birds that inhabit reedbeds and similar habitats. They feed mainly on seeds, e.g. of grasses, to which their bill, as the name implies, is well-adapted. Living in tropical to southern temperate climates, they are usually non-migratory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wrentit</span> Species of bird

The wrentit is a small bird that lives in chaparral, oak woodlands, and bushland on the western coast of North America. It is the only species in the genus Chamaea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taiwan yuhina</span> Species of bird

The Taiwan yuhina, also known as Formosan yuhina, is a small songbird endemic to the island of Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ashy-throated parrotbill</span> Species of bird

The ashy-throated parrotbill is a parrotbill. In old sources, it may be called Alphonse's crow-tit; though superficially resembling a tit it is not a member of the Paridae. The native range of this species extends from south-west China to northern Vietnam, and it might have become naturalised in one area in Italy.

The Tibetan babax is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae. It is endemic to China. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<i>Heleia</i> Genus of birds

Heleia is a genus of birds in the white-eye family Zosteropidae. One species, the spot-breasted heleia is restricted to the island of Timor. The pygmy white-eye is endemic to the island of Borneo. The thick-billed heleia, occurs on Flores and Sumbawa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikkim wedge-billed babbler</span> Species of bird

The Sikkim wedge-billed babbler or blackish-breasted babbler is a species of bird in the Old World babbler family (Timaliidae). It is named for the Indian state of Sikkim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scaly chatterer</span> Species of bird

The scaly chatterer is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae. It is also known as the bare-eyed babbler. It is found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-throated babbler</span> Species of bird

The white-throated babbler is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae. It is endemic to Myanmar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slender-billed babbler</span> Species of bird

The slender-billed babbler is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae. It is found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Northeast India and possibly Myanmar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<i>Yuhina</i> Genus of birds

Yuhina is a genus of birds in the white-eye family Zosteropidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sylvioidea</span> Superfamily of birds

Sylvioidea is a superfamily of passerine birds, one of at least three major clades within the Passerida along with the Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea. It contains about 1300 species including the Old World warblers, Old World babblers, swallows, larks and bulbuls. Members of the clade are found worldwide, but fewer species are present in the Americas.

<i>Alcippe</i> (bird) Genus of birds

Alcippe is a genus of passerine birds in the monotypic family Alcippeidae. The genus once included many other fulvettas and was previously placed in families Pellorneidae or Timaliidae.

<i>Staphida</i> Genus of birds

Staphida is a genus of passerine birds in the white-eye family Zosteropidae.

<i>Zosterornis</i> Genus of birds

Zosterornis is a genus of passerine birds in the white-eye family Zosteropidae. The five species in the genus are endemic to the Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pellorneidae</span> Family of birds

The jungle babblers are a family, Pellorneidae, of mostly Old World passerine birds belonging to the superfamily Sylvioidea. They are quite diverse in size and coloration, and usually characterised by soft, fluffy plumage and a tail on average the length of their body, or longer. These birds are found in tropical zones, with the greatest biodiversity in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laughingthrushes</span> Family of birds

The laughingthrushes are a family, Leiothrichidae, of Old World passerine birds. They are diverse in size and coloration. These are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The entire family used to be included in the Old World babbler family Timaliidae.

References

  1. 1 2 Lindsey, Terence (1991). Forshaw, Joseph (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London: Merehurst Press. p. 207. ISBN   1-85391-186-0.
  2. van Balen 2008, p.  413.
  3. van Balen 2008, p.  432.
  4. van Balen 2008, p.  429.
  5. Bonaparte, Charles Lucien (1853). "Classification ornithologique par series". Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences (in French). 37: 641–647 [644, No. 83].
  6. Bock, Walter J. (1994). History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. Number 222. New York: American Museum of Natural History. pp. 154, 229. Linked page allows download of the 48MB pdf
  7. Springer, Mark S.; Higuchi, Hiroyoshi; Ueda, Keisuke; Minton, Jason; Sibley, Charles G. (1995). "Molecular Evidence That the Bonin Islands "Honeyeater" Is a White-eye". Journal of the Yamashina Institute for Ornithology. 27 (2): 66–77_1. doi: 10.3312/jyio1952.27.66 .
  8. Cibois, Alice (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of Babblers (Timaliidae)". The Auk. 120 (1): 35–54. doi: 10.1093/auk/120.1.35 .
  9. Alstrom, P.; Jonsson, K. A.; Fjeldsa, J.; Odeen, A.; Ericson, P. G. P.; Irestedt, M. (2015). "Dramatic niche shifts and morphological change in two insular bird species". Royal Society Open Science. 2 (3): 140364. Bibcode:2015RSOS....240364A. doi:10.1098/rsos.140364. PMC   4448822 . PMID   26064613.
  10. 1 2 Cai, T.; Cibois, A.; Alström, P.; Moyle, R.G.; Kennedy, J.D.; Shao, S.; Zhang, R.; Irestedt, M.; Ericson, P.G.P.; Gelang, M.; Qu, Y.; Lei, F.; Fjeldså, J. (2019). "Near-complete phylogeny and taxonomic revision of the world's babblers (Aves: Passeriformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 130: 346–356. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.10.010 . PMID   30321696.
  11. 1 2 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2021). "ylviid babblers, parrotbills, white-eyes". IOC World Bird List Version 11.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  12. Oliveros, C.H.; Andersen, M.J.; Moyle, R.G. (2021). "A phylogeny of white-eyes based on ultraconserved elements". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 164: 107273. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107273 .

Sources

Further reading