The term whitework encompasses a wide variety of specific forms of embroidery and can refer to freestyle, counted thread, and canvas-work techniques.[1]:109 Some whitework is known as openwork. Openwork includes drawn thread work and the related cutwork, in which threads are removed (drawn) from the background fabric, which produces an open, lacy effect.[2]:64 Examples of drawn thread work are broderie anglaise, Madeira, and Hardanger.
A range of different cloths have historically been used for whitework, generally lightweight cottons, but also linen or silk.[3] Very small pin-tuck pleats, cutwork, satin stitch, and floral forms are typical features of whitework embroidery, which, de la Haye describes as “simultaneously decorative and plain”, particularly as the threads used in this technique match the colour of the cloth used.[3]
History
Dresden work on white linen; EngageantesRichelieu cutwork embroidery, a form of whitework
Different styles of whitework emanated from different areas and at a variety of times in history. There are examples of pulled thread work from the 1200s. Prior to the 1500s, embroidered clothing and other textiles were limited to the church and to royalty.[4]:2 Dresden work, a pulled thread style, developed in Germany. In the early 1700s, it was popular as a substitute for lace.[5]:310 The term "Dresden lace" was used by Terèse de Dillmont,[6] other terms for it include "Point de Saxe", or "Point de Dresde" to refer to Dresden white embroidery. Broderie anglaise, which features eyelets, was particularly popular in the late 1800s. When the 9th-century tomb of St. Cuthbert was opened in the 12th century, an example of drawn thread work was found in it.[5]:310 Another form of whitework, cutwork, was found throughout Europe, but highly skilled cutwork originated in Italy. In the 1500s, Cardinal Richelieu introduced it to France.:310[5] It was so popular in the 1500s and 1600s in England that, by law, only the noble classes could wear it.[5]:310
Whitework continued to be used as a technique, and became more widely accessible and adopted across the socioeconomic spectrum, particularly during the 19th century.
In the late 18th century, whitework embroidery featured on garments of the fashionable elite and middle classes. Gowns made of lightweight muslins, as well as petticoats and aprons were adorned with the decorative embroidery technique, which was described in Saint-Aubin’s 1770 work 'L'Art du Brodeur', as ‘small stitches one bastes the muslin over the design which has been drawn on paper or parchment.'. [7] When produced during the 18th century, the design was therefore not applied directly to the fabric, instead being visible to the embroiderer through the sheer fabric which was being used.[7] Sheer fabric examples can be found in museums, such as this brusttuch or a shawl.
During the 19th century, the rise in whitework embroidery as a fashion item coincided with the popularity of lace. As whitework was produced at a lower cost to lace at this time, it was more accessible to a wider proportion of the population.[8] Though employing entirely hand-made techniques, the manufacture of pieces decorated with whitework embroidery took on an industrial scale, due to consumer[9] demand.[8]
Through its time in fashion in the 19th century whitework embroidery could be found on garments, accessories, and home textiles, including decorative collars, cuffs, chemises, and pelerines for womenswear, as well as bonnets and dresses for infants.[8]
After the eventual demise from a huge mass-producing industry at the end of the 19th century, whitework embroidery made several re-appearances in fashion. Light fabrics and colours popularised in fashions of the 1910s saw the re-emergence of whitework embroidery on outerwear such as ‘lingerie dresses’ (so called due to the fabrics used in their construction), and Edwardian garments were referenced in Mary Quant’s 1960s Victorian-inspired collections.[3]
The traditional skills and new design works are practiced by contemporary masters.[10] Contemporary designers working with whitework include Jenny Adin-Christie,[11] Yvette Stanton,[12] Tracy A Franklin[13] Ayako Otsuka[14] and Trish Burr.[15]
Regional embroidery
Many traditional forms of whitework are found in towns and regions, having developed as specific styles over a period of time. They are often found on the traditional costume of the region, on shirts, aprons or head coverings. They can also be found on household linens and ecclesiastical or ritual cloths. Examples of such embroideries are:
Guimarães embroidery (Bordado de Guimarães) - Guimarães, Portugual.[26][27]
Frisian whitework (Fries witwerk) - from Friesland, the Netherlands.[28]
Marken embroidery - from Marken, the Netherlands.[29]
Näversöm - from the Halsingland region of Sweden.[30]
Silesian embroidery - Silesia (Śląsk) in the south of Poland, bordering Czechia.[31]
Sardinian knotted embroidery (punt 'e nù) - from Teulada, Sardinia.[32][33]
Appenzell embroidery (Appenzeller Handstickerei) - from Appenzell, Switzerland.[34]
The whitework industry in Scotland
The technique became associated with Ayrshire, Scotland, during the 19th century. As a centre of production, this form of embroidery is therefore often referred to as Ayrshire Whitework. Whitework textiles were however produced for the garment trade throughout the west of Scotland at this time, including in Paisley and the wider county of Renfrewshire.
The processing and manufacture of cotton thread and woven cloth in the west of Scotland, amongst several other different fibres and fabrics, can be traced to the late 18th century, with numerous subsidiary trades including bleaching, dying, and printing also being established in this area.[35] An interconnected system of industry and trade soon developed, and the rise in popularity for such embroidery as whitework was well situated to this geographic area, which had previously also been connected with the production of tambour embroidery,[8] had good transport links, and established industry and trade networks.
Thousands of women were employed as outworkers in the industry in the west of Scotland, producing items deemed “small luxuries” which were traded through the Glasgow embroidered muslin markets.[8]
Indian chikan embroidery holds similarities with the Ayrshire style of embroidery, particularly in that the two region’s embroidery often featured on very lightweight muslin cloths.[36]
Related Research Articles
Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to stitch thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on hats, clothing, blankets, and handbags. Embroidery is available in a wide variety of thread or yarn colour. It is often used to personalize gifts or clothing items.
A needlework sampler is a piece of embroidery or cross-stitching produced as a 'specimen of achievement', demonstration or a test of skill in needlework. It often includes the alphabet, figures, motifs, decorative borders and sometimes the name of the person who embroidered it and the date. The word sampler is derived from the Latin exemplum, which means 'example'.
Hardanger embroidery or "Hardangersøm" is a form of embroidery traditionally worked with white thread on white even-weave linen or cloth, using counted thread and drawn thread work techniques. It is sometimes called whitework embroidery.
Drawn thread work is one of the earliest forms of open work embroidery, and has been worked throughout Europe. Originally it was often used for ecclesiastical items and to ornament shrouds. It is a form of counted-thread embroidery based on removing threads from the warp and/or the weft of a piece of even-weave fabric. The remaining threads are grouped or bundled together into a variety of patterns. The more elaborate styles of drawn thread work use a variety of other stitches and techniques, but the drawn thread parts are their most distinctive element. It is also grouped with whitework embroidery because it was traditionally done in white thread on white fabric and is often combined with other whitework techniques.
Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, made by machine or by hand. Generally, lace is split into two main categories, needlelace and bobbin lace, although there are other types of lace, such as knitted or crocheted lace. Other laces such as these are considered as a category of their specific craft. Knitted lace, therefore, is an example of knitting. This article considers both needle lace and bobbin lace.
Appliqué is ornamental needlework in which pieces or patches of fabric in different shapes and patterns are sewn or stuck onto a larger piece to form a picture or pattern. It is commonly used as decoration, especially on garments. The technique is accomplished either by hand stitching or machine. Appliqué is commonly practised with textiles, but the term may be applied to similar techniques used on different materials. In the context of ceramics, for example, an appliqué is a separate piece of clay added to the primary work, generally for the purpose of decoration.
Needle lace is a type of lace created using a needle and thread to create hundreds of small stitches to form the lace itself.
Needlepoint is a type of canvas work, a form of embroidery in which yarn is stitched through a stiff open weave canvas. Traditionally needlepoint designs completely cover the canvas. Although needlepoint may be worked in a variety of stitches, many needlepoint designs use only a simple tent stitch and rely upon color changes in the yarn to construct the pattern. Needlepoint is the oldest form of canvas work.
Chain stitch is a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped stitches form a chain-like pattern. Chain stitch is an ancient craft – examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period. Handmade chain stitch embroidery does not require that the needle pass through more than one layer of fabric. For this reason the stitch is an effective surface embellishment near seams on finished fabric. Because chain stitches can form flowing, curved lines, they are used in many surface embroidery styles that mimic "drawing" in thread.
Armenian needlelace is a pure form of needle lace made using only a needle, thread and pair of scissors.
Filet lace is the general word used for all the different techniques of embroidery on knotted net. It is a hand made needlework created by weaving or embroidery using a long blunt needle and a thread on a ground of knotted net lace or filet work made of square or diagonal meshes of the same sizes or of different sizes. Lacis uses the same technique but is made on a ground of leno or small canvas.
Broderie anglaise is a whitework needlework technique incorporating features of embroidery, cutwork and needle lace that became associated with England, due to its popularity there in the 19th century.
Chikankari is a traditional embroidery style from Lucknow, India. Translated, the word means embroidery, and it is one of Lucknow's best known textile decoration styles. The main market in Lucknow for Chikankari based products is Chowk. Production is mainly based in Lucknow and in the adjoining districts.
Cutwork or cut work, also known as punto tagliato in Italian, is a needlework technique in which portions of a textile, typically cotton or linen, are cut away and the resulting "hole" is reinforced and filled with embroidery or needle lace.
Buttonhole stitch and the related blanket stitch are hand-sewing stitches used in tailoring, embroidery, and needle lace-making.
Mountmellick embroidery or Mountmellick work is a floral whitework embroidery originating in the town of Mountmellick in County Laois, Ireland, in the early nineteenth century.
In embroidery, plainweave is a technical category of woven base fabrics that are suitable for working certain varieties of embroidery. Plainweave fabrics have a tight weave and individual threads are not readily visible. Surface embroidery may be performed on plainweave, such as crewel work, goldwork, stumpwork, cutwork, and candlewicking.
English embroidery includes embroidery worked in England or by English people abroad from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. The oldest surviving English embroideries include items from the early 10th century preserved in Durham Cathedral and the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry, if it was worked in England. The professional workshops of Medieval England created rich embroidery in metal thread and silk for ecclesiastical and secular uses. This style was called Opus Anglicanum or "English work", and was famous throughout Europe.
Sewed muslin was a fashion imported from Paris in the late 18th century. Related to tambour lace, it was worked on very fine muslin, and used a variety of stitches to create motifs, usually depicting flowers and plants.
The term Hedebo embroidery covers several forms of white embroidery which originated in the Hedebo (heathland) region of Zealand, Denmark, in the 1760s. The varied techniques which evolved over the next hundred years in the farming community were subsequently developed by the middle classes until around 1820. They were applied to articles of clothing such as collars and cuffs but were also used to decorate bed linen.
References
↑ Embroidery: a maker's guide. Crow, Eleanor, Robson, Faye, Victoria and Albert Museum. [New York, NY]: Thames & Hudson. 2017. ISBN978-0-500-29327-0. OCLC990114748.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
↑ Brown, Pauline. (1994). The encyclopedia of embroidery techniques. New York: Viking Studio Books. ISBN0-670-85568-5. OCLC30858977.
1 2 3 de la Haye, Amy. "Selvedge". search.ebscohost.com. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
1 2 3 4 The Royal School of Needlework book of embroidery: a guide to essential stitches, techniques and projects. Royal School of Needlework (London, England). Tunbridge Wells, Kent. 26 June 2018. ISBN978-1-78221-606-3. OCLC1044858813.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
↑ Houston Almqvist, Jane (1996). Mountmellick Work: Irish White Embroidery. Colin Smythe. ISBN978-0851055121.
↑ Fernandes, Isabel Maria, ed. (2006). Bordado de Guimarães: renovar a tradição = Guimarães embroidery: a tradition renewed. Porto: Campo das Letras. ISBN978-989-625-057-7.
↑ Graff-Höfgen, Gisela (1974). Schlesische Spitzen: eine Dokumentation über d. schles. Klöppel- u. Nadelspitzenherstellung. Silesia. München: Delp. ISBN978-3-7689-0125-3.
↑ Nisbet, Stuart M. (2008). "The Making of Scotland's First Industrial Region: The Early Cotton Industry in Renfrewshire". Journal of Scottish Historical Studies. 29 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3366/E1748538X09000314.
Bleckwenn, Ruth; Jenzen, Igor A.; Kunstgewerbemuseum Dresden, eds. (2000). Dresdner Spitzen - Point de Saxe: virtuose Weißstickereien des 18. Jahrhunderts; [Bestandskatalog und Begleitbuch zur Ausstellung im Kunstgewerbemuseum Dresden vom 15. Juli bis 31. Oktober 2000]. Dresden: Kunstgewerbemuseum. ISBN978-3-932264-20-7
Toomer, Heather; Reed, Elspeth (2008). Embroidered with white: the 18th century fashion for Dresden lace and other whiteworked accessories. England: Heather Toomer Antique Lace. ISBN978-0-9542730-2-6
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