Crewel embroidery

Last updated

Crewel embroidery, or crewelwork, is a type of surface embroidery using wool. A wide variety of different embroidery stitches are used to follow a design outline applied to the fabric. The technique is at least a thousand years old.[ citation needed ]

Contents

Crewel embroidery is not identified with particular styles of designs, but rather is embroidery with the use of this wool thread. [1] : 102  Modern crewel wool is a fine, two-ply or one-ply yarn available in many different colours. Crewel embroidery is often associated with England in the 17th and 18th centuries, and from England was carried to the American colonies. It was particularly popular in New England. The stitches and designs used in America were simpler and more economical with the scarce crewel wool. The Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework (1896–1926) revived interest in crewel embroidery in the United States.

Fanciful leaf in crewelwork, detail of a curtain, English, c. 1696. Victoria and Albert Museum T.166-1961. Crewel curtain c 1696 England leaf detail.jpg
Fanciful leaf in crewelwork, detail of a curtain, English, c. 1696. Victoria and Albert Museum T.166-1961.

Description of the technique

The crewel technique is not a counted-thread embroidery (like canvas work), but a style of free embroidery. Crewelwork had its heyday in Britain in the 17th century, but has come in and out of fashion several times since then. [2] Traditionally, crewel embroidery is done on tightly woven linen twill, though more recently, other fabrics like Matka silk, cotton velvet, rayon velvet, silk organza, net fabric and also jute have been used. A firm fabric is required to support the weight of the stitching, which is done with crewel wool. This type of wool has a long staple; it is fine and can be strongly twisted. It is best to use a crewel needle to execute the stitches as a needle with a wide body, large eye and a sharp point is required.

The outlines of the design to be worked are often screen printed onto the fabric or can be transferred to plain fabric using modern transfer pens containing water-soluble ink or air-soluble ink, using a lightbox and a permanent pen, or iron-on designs applied using transfer sheets. The old-fashioned "pinprick and chalk" or "prick and pounce" methods also work well. The prick and pounce method involves transferring the design outlines – printed on paper – by pricking the outline with a needle to produce perforations along the lines. Powdered chalk or pounce material is then forced through the holes onto the fabric using a felt pad or stipple brush in order to replicate the design on the material. [3] : 9–10 

Designs range from the traditional to more contemporary patterns. Traditional design styles are often referred to as Jacobean embroidery featuring highly stylized floral and animal designs with flowing vines and leaves. [4]

Many different embroidery stitches are used in crewelwork to create a textured and colourful effect. Unlike silk or cotton embroidery threads, crewel wool is thicker and creates a raised, dimensional feel to the work. Some of the techniques and stitches include:

In the past, crewel embroidery was used on elaborate and expensive bed hangings and curtains. Now it is most often used to decorate cushions, curtains, clothing and wall hangings. Recently several other items, such as lamp shades and handbags have been added.

Unlike canvas work, crewel embroidery requires the use of an embroidery hoop or frame on which the material is stretched taut and secured prior to stitching. This ensures an even amount of tension in the stitches, so that designs do not become distorted. Depending on the size of the finished piece, crewelwork is generally executed with a small portable hoop up to large free standing frames (also known as slates).

Etymology

The origin of the word crewel is unknown but is thought to come from an ancient word describing the curl in the staple, the single hair of the wool. [6] The word crewel in the 1700s meant worsted, a wool yarn with twist, and thus crewel embroidery was not identified with particular styles of designs, but rather was embroidery with the use of this wool thread. [1] : 102 

History of crewelwork

The earliest surviving example of crewelwork is The Bayeux Tapestry, which is not actually a tapestry at all. This story of the Norman Conquest was embroidered on linen fabric with worsted wool. [7] The creators of the Bayeux Tapestry used laid stitches for the people and the scenery, couched stitches to provide outlines, and stem stitch for detail and lettering. The worsted wool used for the embroidery may have come from the Norfolk village of Worstead. [7] There are few other early crewel embroideries known. The Jamtlands Lans Museum in Sweden has three related items, the Overhogdals tapestries, from the 11th -12th centuries that show people, animals, and other natural and human-built items. As of 2019, the primary theory is that these works depict the downfall of the world, the Ragnarok. [8]

England

Wool from Worstead in Norfolk was manufactured for weaving purposes, but also started to be used for embroidering small designs using a limited number of stitches, such as stem and seeding. These were initially often executed in a single color. However, the color and design range expanded, and embroidery using this crewel wool began to be used in larger projects and designs, such as bed hangings. [7] : 32 

Rich embroidery had been used extensively in ecclesiastical vestments and altar drapings, but after the Protestant Reformation, the emphasis moved to embroidery, including crewel work, for use in homes and other secular settings. [7] : 32 

Elizabethan Period

Embroidered cushion cover, 1601, British (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Stool MET DP159798.jpg
Embroidered cushion cover, 1601, British (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Embroidery for household furnishings during the Elizabethan era was often worked using silk and wool on canvas or linen canvas. Garment embroidery more often used silk or silk and silver threads. Many different stitches were used for the embroidery, including "back, basket, braid, pleated braid, brick, buttonhole, chain, coral, cross, long-armed cross, French knot, herringbone, link, long and short, running, double running, satin, seed, split, stem, tent as well as laid work and couching." [9] : 16 

Motifs frequently used in crewel embroidery of the period included coiling stems, branches, and detached flower designs. [9] : 16  Some embroideries from the Elizabethan period used garden motifs for their design, as gardens themselves were enjoying a heyday. These embroideries were worked in silk or wool (crewel), and were used in the home to brighten the surroundings. Embroidered wall hangings, table carpets, and various forms of bed-hangings might all sport embroidered images. The length of valences made them ideal for embroidery that told a story of a number of episodes. [10] : 6–7 

Stuart Period

Queen Mary II (co-reigned 1689–1694 with her husband William II) and the women of her court were known for the very fine needlework they produced. Using satin stitch with worsted wool, they created hangings and other objects showing images of fruits, birds, and beasts. [11] : 367  Their example spurred interest in crewel embroidery. Bed hangings and other furnishings were created, often using bluish greens supplemented by brighter greens and browns. Occasionally, "a dull pinkish red" would be the main color. [11] : 367 

Crewel embroidery on bed curtain panel, British, early 18th century (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Bed curtain panel, British, early 18th c.jpg
Crewel embroidery on bed curtain panel, British, early 18th century (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Designs in the latter part of the 1600s fell primarily into three categories. One was individual sprays of flowers scattered over the fabric; the second, to be found on narrow panels, involved flowering stems running the length of the panel with a floral motif between them; and the third was a branching tree with stylized leaves, the Tree of Life. The tree sits on a mound, and there might be other small motifs of individuals or flora and fauna near the mound. Jacobean embroidery from the first quarter of the 17th century is known for this third category. Some experts believe that these patterns were derived from cotton palampore from Masulipatam. [11] However, other experts stress the importance of multiple influences from different parts of the world brought back by English travelers, and evolving designs from earlier forms of embroidery. [12]

Flora and fauna found in the tree of life designs include the rose, noted for national and religious reasons, and two emblems of the Stuarts: the carnation and the caterpillar. Influence of exploration and trade are seen in plants in Jacobean that have recently become known to the English: the potato flower and the strawberry. [12] : xvi 

During the time of William and Mary, Chinese motifs began to appear in crewel embroideries, such as pagodas, long-tailed birds, and Chinese people. Just as Indian cottons may have influenced designs with trees and exaggerated leaves, these Chinese elements may have been inspired by Persian silks and calico fabric. [11] : 368 

Hanoverian period (c. 1740) crewelwork detail highlighting carnation Georgian embroidered panel detail.jpg
Hanoverian period (c. 1740) crewelwork detail highlighting carnation

Jacobean embroidery designs enjoyed a resurgence in interest during the reign of Queen Anne (reigned 1702–1707). Patterns from the mid-1600s were copied, either exactly or with some alterations. While the tree motif is common to all, there is evidence of gradual change in the designs that link them together. [12] : xii–xiii 

United States

Colonial America

Early fabrics made in the Colonies tended to be plain in both weave and in color. Fabric was made from white and black wool, and indigo dye was used. With the use of these materials, the fabric was gray, brown, or blue. Needlework was a way to enliven this fabric. and the earliest forms of needlework used were turkeywork and crewel embroidery. [13] : 9 

Fishing Lady crewelwork, 18th century, Boston (Cleveland Art Museum) America, Massachusetts, Boston, 18th century, 1st half - "Fishing Lady" - 1996.1003 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif
Fishing Lady crewelwork, 18th century, Boston (Cleveland Art Museum)

While early American crewelwork, and embroidery more generally, followed in the tradition of their English counterparts regarding fabric, designs, and yarn, there were some differences. Early American works tend to display a smaller range of individual stitches, smaller and less complicated designs, and the designs cover less of the background fabric. [14] : 82–3  A study of New England crewel embroidery found that the primary colors, blue, red, and yellow, were the most used. The stitches used most often were outline, seed, and economy, and the designs most frequently used showed plants. [13] : Abstract 

Crewel embroidery was a pastime primarily in New England. There are some surviving examples from the mid Atlantic region, primarily New York and Pennsylvania, but these designs differed. Indeed, there were also stylistic differences within New England, with one region being the Massachusetts coast area centered on Boston, and another Connecticut. [1] : 104–105 

Young women in New England in the 1700s were expected to become adept at needlework. Day and boarding schools that taught different types of needlework existed, as evidenced by advertisements in colonial Boston newspapers. [15] : 77  They would embroider items both utilitarian, such as bed-hangings, curtains, clothes, and bed linens, and ornamental, such as wall hangings. [16] : 26  In the early colonial period, the master bed was often located in the parlor, and thus on public display. Crewel bed-hangings provided both decoration and comfort, while serving as a status symbol. [14] : 68  Women would also create smaller items decorated with crewel work, such as the detached pockets that were worn tied around one's waist and envelope bags carried by men and women that were popular in the second half of the 1700s. [17] : 113–115 

Detail of linen valence ca. 1760-1770 embroidered with crewel wool, American American crewel valance.jpg
Detail of linen valence ca. 1760-1770 embroidered with crewel wool, American

Many of the embroidery patterns they worked from included common motifs: trees, birds, flowers, groups of figures or animals. This indicates that these patterns may have been variations of a small number of originals. [15] : 77  Landscape patterns with figures were more realistic in the 18th century than they were in the 17th century, and seldom involved scenes from the Bible, as had earlier patterns. [16] : 26  Many of the New England embroidery designs in the 1700s included rounded and curving elements. [15] : 78 

Patterns for crewel designs were obtained in a number of ways. Patterns in both England and New England were often derived from elements taken from engravings of English and French artists. These elements, often figures or groups of figures, would be taken from various works and combined in different ways. [16] : 26  In colonial New England, women used pattern books or sketches in magazines (such as The Ladies' Magazine ) that were obtained from England. Design books of other types, such as gardens and furniture, were also used. Custom stamped fabric could be found in larger cities at times, as could custom-drawn sketches. Women may also have used designs from printed fabric for their crewel work. [13] : 10–11 

From surviving Colonial crewelwork and written references such as letters, it is known that most projects were embroidered on linen. However, the preferred background fabrics were fustian (a twill fabric that generally had a linen warp with a cotton weft, though may have been all cotton) or dimity (which has fine vertical ribs and resembles fine corduroy). [18]

The range of wool colors that needleworkers in colonial New England could call upon were rather limited. Many New England households grew indigo, which allowed wool to be dyed in various shades of blue. Other natural materials, used with or without mordants, used to dye wool included: butternut shells (spring green); hemlock bark (reddish tan); logwood (purple brown, blue black, deep black purple); broom sedge, wild cherry, sumac, and golden rod (yellow); onion skins (lemon and gold yellow); and cochineal (purple, deep wine red). [19] : 30–31 

Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework

There was a resurgence of interest in crewel embroidery in Deerfield, Massachusetts when two women, Margaret C. Whiting and Ellen Miller, founded the Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework. This society was inspired by the crewel work of 18th-century women who had lived in and near Deerfield. Members of the Blue and White Society initially used the patterns and stitches from these earlier works that they had found in the town museum. [20] Because these new embroideries were not meant to replicate the earlier works, society artisans soon deviated from the earlier versions with new patterns and stitches, and even the use of linen, rather than wool, thread. [21] Miller and Whiting used vegetable dyes in order to create the colors of the wool threads, and handwoven linen fabric was bought for use as the background. [21] Members of this society continued their stitching until 1926. [20]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cross-stitch</span> Form of counted-thread embroidery.

Cross-stitch is a form of sewing and a popular form of counted-thread embroidery in which X-shaped stitches in a tiled, raster-like pattern are used to form a picture. The stitcher counts the threads on a piece of evenweave fabric in each direction so that the stitches are of uniform size and appearance. This form of cross-stitch is also called counted cross-stitch in order to distinguish it from other forms of cross-stitch. Sometimes cross-stitch is done on designs printed on the fabric ; the stitcher simply stitches over the printed pattern. Cross-stitch is often executed on easily countable fabric called aida cloth whose weave creates a plainly visible grid of squares with holes for the needle at each corner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Embroidery</span> Art or handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn

Embroidery is the craft of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on caps, hats, coats, overlays, blankets, dress shirts, denim, dresses, stockings, scarfs, and golf shirts. Embroidery is available in a wide variety of thread or yarn colour. It is often used to personalize gifts or clothing items.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sampler (needlework)</span> Textile artwork used to display skills and techniques

A needlework sampler is a piece of embroidery or cross-stitching produced as a 'specimen of achievement', demonstration or a test of skill in needlework. It often includes the alphabet, figures, motifs, decorative borders and sometimes the name of the person who embroidered it and the date. The word sampler is derived from the Latin exemplum, which means 'example'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Assisi embroidery</span> Form of counter-thread embroidery art

Assisi embroidery is a form of counted-thread embroidery based on an ancient Italian needlework tradition in which the background is filled with embroidery stitches and the main motifs are outlined but not stitched. The name is derived from the Italian town of Assisi where the modern form of the craft originated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackwork</span> Technique of monochrome embroidery originating in Tudor England

Blackwork, sometimes historically termed Spanish blackwork, is a form of embroidery generally worked in black thread, although other colours are also used on occasion, as in scarletwork, where the embroidery is worked in red thread. Originating in Tudor period England, blackwork typically, though not always, takes the form of a counted-thread embroidery, where the warp and weft yarns of a fabric are counted for the length of each stitch, producing uniform-length stitches and a precise pattern on an even-weave fabric. Blackwork may also take the form of free-stitch embroidery, where the yarns of a fabric are not counted while sewing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hardanger embroidery</span> Type of whitework embroidery from Norway

Hardanger embroidery or "Hardangersøm" is a form of embroidery traditionally worked with white thread on white even-weave linen or cloth, using counted thread and drawn thread work techniques. It is sometimes called whitework embroidery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drawn thread work</span> Creative textile work

Drawn thread work is one of the earliest forms of open work embroidery, and has been worked throughout Europe. Originally it was often used for ecclesiastical items and to ornament shrouds. It is a form of counted-thread embroidery based on removing threads from the warp and/or the weft of a piece of even-weave fabric. The remaining threads are grouped or bundled together into a variety of patterns. The more elaborate styles of drawn thread work use a variety of other stitches and techniques, but the drawn thread parts are their most distinctive element. It is also grouped with whitework embroidery because it was traditionally done in white thread on white fabric and is often combined with other whitework techniques.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin wool work</span> Embroidery technique using worsted yarns

Berlin wool work is a style of embroidery similar to today's needlepoint that was particularly popular in Europe and America from 1804 to 1875. It is typically executed with wool yarn on canvas, worked in a single stitch such as cross stitch or tent stitch, although Beeton's book of Needlework (1870) describes 15 different stitches for use in Berlin work. It was traditionally stitched in many colours and hues, producing intricate three-dimensional looks by careful shading. Silk or beads were frequently used as highlights. The design of such embroidery was made possible by the great progress made in dyeing, initially with new mordants and chemical dyes, followed in 1856, especially by the discovery of aniline dyes, which produced bright colors.

Needlepoint is a type of canvas work, a form of embroidery in which yarn is stitched through a stiff open weave canvas. Traditionally needlepoint designs completely cover the canvas. Although needlepoint may be worked in a variety of stitches, many needlepoint designs use only a simple tent stitch and rely upon color changes in the yarn to construct the pattern. Needlepoint is the oldest form of canvas work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chain stitch</span> Type of embroidery stitch

Chain stitch is a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped stitches form a chain-like pattern. Chain stitch is an ancient craft – examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period. Handmade chain stitch embroidery does not require that the needle pass through more than one layer of fabric. For this reason the stitch is an effective surface embellishment near seams on finished fabric. Because chain stitches can form flowing, curved lines, they are used in many surface embroidery styles that mimic "drawing" in thread.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jacobean embroidery</span> Embroidery style popular in early 17th century England

Jacobean embroidery refers to embroidery styles that flourished in the reign of King James I of England in first quarter of the 17th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Embroidery of India</span> Any of the various styles of embroidery indigenous to India

Embroidery in India includes dozens of embroidery styles that vary by region and clothing styles. Designs in Indian embroidery are formed on the basis of the texture and the design of the fabric and the stitch. The dot and the alternate dot, the circle, the square, the triangle, and permutations and combinations of these constitute the design.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cutwork</span> Needlework technique

Cutwork or cut work, also known as punto tagliato in Italian, is a needlework technique in which portions of a textile, typically cotton or linen, are cut away and the resulting "hole" is reinforced and filled with embroidery or needle lace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Embroidery thread</span> Any of several types of thread designed for use in embroidery and related crafts

Embroidery thread is yarn that is manufactured or hand-spun specifically for embroidery and other forms of needlework. Embroidery thread often differs widely, coming in many different fiber types, colors and weights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slip (needlework)</span>

In needlework, a slip is a design representing a cutting or specimen of a plant, usually with flowers or fruit and leaves on a stem. Most often, slip refers to a plant design stitched in canvaswork (pettipoint), cut out, and applied to a woven background fabric. By extension, slip may also mean any embroidered or canvaswork motif, floral or not, mounted to fabric in this way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English embroidery</span> Embroidery worked in England or by English people abroad

English embroidery includes embroidery worked in England or by English people abroad from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. The oldest surviving English embroideries include items from the early 10th century preserved in Durham Cathedral and the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry, if it was worked in England. The professional workshops of Medieval England created rich embroidery in metal thread and silk for ecclesiastical and secular uses. This style was called Opus Anglicanum or "English work", and was famous throughout Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hedebo embroidery</span> Danish white embroidery

The term Hedebo embroidery covers several forms of white embroidery which originated in the Hedebo (heathland) region of Zealand, Denmark, in the 1760s. The varied techniques which evolved over the next hundred years in the farming community were subsequently developed by the middle classes until around 1820. They were applied to articles of clothing such as collars and cuffs but were also used to decorate bed linen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework</span> American arts and crafts society, 1896-1926

The Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework was founded in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1896 by Margaret C. Whiting and Ellen Miller. They formed the society in 1896 as a way to help residents boost the town's economy by reviving American needlework from the 1700s. It was inspired by the crewel embroidery of 18th-century women who had lived in the Deerfield, Massachusetts, area. Members of the Blue and White Society initially used the patterns and stitches from these earlier works, but because these new embroideries were not meant to replicate the earlier works, the embroidery soon deviated from the original versions with new patterns and stitches, and even the use of linen, rather than wool, thread. The society disbanded in 1926 for several reasons. Ellen Miller was in declining health; the trained stitchers were getting old and could not continue; Margaret C. Whiting's sight was fading; and, the design and quality of commercially produced items was increasing.

Bed hangings or bed curtains are fabric panels that surround a bed; they were used from medieval times through to the 19th century. Bed hangings provided privacy when the master or great bed was in a public room, such as the parlor. They also kept warmth in, and were a way of showing one's wealth. When bedrooms became more common in the mid-1700s, the use of bed hangings diminished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colcha embroidery</span> A form of surface embroidery using the colcha stitch, found in the southwest United States.

Colcha embroidery from the southwest United States is a form of surface embroidery that uses wool threads on cotton or linen fabric. During the Spanish Colonial period, the word colcha referred to a densely embroidered wool coverlet. In time, the word also came to refer to the embroidery stitch that was used for these coverlets, and then began to be used on other surfaces. The colcha stitch is self-couched, with threads applied at a 45-degree angle to tie down the stitch. Originally, the wool threads were dyed naturally, using plants or insects, such as cochineal. Both materials used and design motifs have varied over time.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Rowe, Ann Pollard (1973). "Crewel Embroidered Bed Hangings in Old and New England". Boston Museum Bulletin. 71 (365–366): 101–163.
  2. ↑ "Crewel Embroidery". Textile Research Centre. TRC Leiden. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  3. 1 2 Brown, Pauline. (1994). The encyclopedia of embroidery techniques. New York: Viking Studio Books. ISBN   0-670-85568-5. OCLC   30858977.
  4. ↑ Corbet, Mary (2019-01-25). "Hello, Crewel World! Tips to Help You Nail This Revived Embroidery Style". Bluprint. Retrieved 2019-04-23.
  5. ↑ Goiser, Anna. "Basic Crewel Stitch Vocabulary". Talliaferro. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  6. ↑ "The History of Crewel Embroidery". www.suembroidery.com. Retrieved 2019-04-23.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Royal School of Needlework (London, England) (2018). The Royal School of Needlework book of embroidery: a guide to essential stitches, techniques and projects. Tunbridge Wells, Kent: Search Press. p. 32. ISBN   9781782216063. OCLC   1044858813.
  8. ↑ "Överhogdal Tapestry: Amazingly Well-Preserved Ancient Textiles With Norse And Christian Motifs". Ancient Pages. 2019-04-26. Retrieved 2019-11-27.
  9. 1 2 Davis, Mildred J. (1962). The art of crewel embroidery. [publisher not identified]. OCLC   5805445.
  10. ↑ Beck, Thomasina. (1979). Embroidered gardens . New York: Viking Press. ISBN   0-670-29260-5. OCLC   4947170.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Jourdain, M. (1909). "Crewel-Work Hangings and Bed Furniture". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 15 (78): 366–368 – via JSTOR.
  12. 1 2 3 Fitzwilliam, Ada Wentworth. (1990). Jacobean embroidery : its forms and fillings including late Tudor. Hands, A. F. Morris. (1st pbk. ed.). London: B.T. Batsford. ISBN   0-7134-6376-7. OCLC   27188169.
  13. 1 2 3 Richards, Mary Lynne (1975). Crewel Design of Colonial New England and the Environmental Influences (M.A. Thesis). Michigan State University.
  14. 1 2 Swan, Susan Burrows (1976). A Winterthur guide to American needlework . Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum. New York: Crown. ISBN   0517521776. OCLC   2151073.
  15. 1 2 3 Terrace, Lisa Cook (1964). "English and New England Embroidery". Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. 62 (328): 65–80. JSTOR   4171406.
  16. 1 2 3 Townsend, Gertrude (1941). "An Introduction to the Study of Eighteenth Century New England Embroidery". Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. 39 (232): 19–26. JSTOR   4170793.
  17. ↑ Weissman, Judith Reiter. (1994). Labors of love : America's textiles and needlework, 1650-1930. Lavitt, Wendy. New York: Wings Books. ISBN   0-517-10136-X. OCLC   29315818.
  18. ↑ Swan, Susan Burrows (1977). Plain & fancy: American women and their needlework, 1700-1850 . New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p.  105. ISBN   9780030151217. OCLC   2818511.
  19. ↑ Harbeson, Georgiana Brown. American needlework: The history of decorative stitchery and embroidery from the late 16th to the 20th century. New York: Bonanza Books.
  20. 1 2 Howe, Margery Burnham. (1976). Deerfield embroidery. New York: Scribner. ISBN   0-684-14377-1. OCLC   1341513.
  21. 1 2 The Needle arts : a social history of American needlework. Time-Life Books. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books. 1990. p. 104. ISBN   0-8094-6841-7. OCLC   21482166.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.