The views of witchcraft in North America have evolved through an interlinking history of cultural beliefs and interactions. These forces contribute to complex and evolving views of witchcraft. Today, North America hosts a diverse array of beliefs about witchcraft.[1][2]
Indigenous communities such as the Cherokee,[3]Hopi,[4] the Navajo[5] among others,[6] included in their folklore and beliefs malevolent figures who could harm their communities, often resulting in severe punishments, including death.[7] These communities also recognized the role of medicine people as healers and protectors against these malevolent forces.[citation needed]
The term witchcraft arrived with European colonists, along with European views on witchcraft.[1] This term would be adopted by many Indigenous communities for those beliefs about harmful supernatural powers. In colonial America and the United States, views of witchcraft were further shaped by European colonists. The infamous Salem witch trials in Massachusetts, along with other witch hunts in places like Maryland and Pennsylvania, exemplified European and Christian fear and hysteria surrounding accusations of witchcraft. These trials led to the execution of numerous individuals accused of practicing witchcraft. Despite changes in laws and perspectives over time, accusations of witchcraft persisted into the 19th century in some regions, such as Tennessee, where prosecutions occurred as late as 1833.
Native American communities such as the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Creek, Delaware, Hopi, Miami, Natchez, Navajo and Seneca have historically defined witches as evil-doers who harm their own communities. Witches are traditionally seen as criminals, and witchcraft as a crime punishable by death, if nothing else as a last resort.[11]:4-6[12][4] While some communities have passed laws specifically outlawing vigilante killings, traditional views of witches and witchcraft have largely remained the same into 20th century,[11]:4–6 and through to the present among traditionals.[4] Alan Kilpatrick writes in The Night Has a Naked Soul: Witchcraft and Sorcery Among the Western Cherokee "A cursory survey of the ethnohistorical literature indicates that death was the standard punishment among Native American societies. Numerous eighteenth- and nineteenth-century accounts of random witch killings are recorded among the Chickasaw."[11]:4-6
Witches in these communities are defined in contrast to medicine people, who are the healers and ceremonial leaders, and who provide protection against witches and witchcraft.[11]:4-6[12]
Cherokee
The Cherokee have traditional monster stories of witches, such as Raven Mocker (Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï) and Spearfinger (U'tlun'ta), both known as dangerous killers.[13][14]
Among the Cherokee, the medicine people are seen as a "priesthood caste",[11]:3 known to work together in groups to help the community. As in other Native communities, they are defined as the opposite of witches, who are seen as criminals,[11]:4-6
In contrast, the traditional Cherokee witch lives alone, eats alone (fearful of being poisoned), and commits heinous acts alone, surreptitiously under the cover of darkness. Jealous and hypersensitive by nature, the Cherokee witch lives in the ever-fearful grip of being publicly exposed.[11]:4-6
Cherokee healers have "doctored" dogs so the dogs can help them detect witches.[11]:4-6
As in the other tribes that have agreed to talk to anthropologists, witchcraft has been traditionally punished by death in Cherokee communities. In 1824 the western Cherokee passed new laws "forbidding the wanton killing of suspected witches",[11]:5 however, this attitude and retribution appears to have continued at the same rate in both the Cherokee and Creek communities throughout the 19th Century.[11]:5 In the twentieth century, many communities responded to allegations of witchcraft with mental health treatment, including medication. But despite changes in laws and perspectives, Kilpatrick (quoting Shimony (1989)) wrote in 1998 that one does still occasionally read about "the demise of a suspected witch in Native American communities" but that most of these deaths take place "only while the witch is in animal guise (by shooting) or by means of counter-witchcraft".[11]:4-6
Hopi
The Hopi have many beliefs and concerns about witches and witchcraft.
To the Hopis, witches or evil-hearted persons deliberately try to destroy social harmony by sowing discontent, doubt, and criticism through evil gossip as well as by actively combating medicine men.[4]
Suspicious deaths are often blamed on witchcraft, with members of the community trying to figure out who might be a witch, and who might have caused the death or other misfortune.[4]
They are called popwaqt, the plural of powaqa, "witch" or "sorcerer." They are unequivocally evil, casting spells, causing illness, killing babies, and destroying the life cycle. They practice powaqqatsi, the "life of evil sorcery." The Hopis call them kwitavi, "shit people."
....
a witch is a person who kills close family relatives in order to prolong his or her own life by four years. By killing, I mean causing through occult means an unnatural death, such as stillbirth, infants dying of ordinary illnesses, or healthy adults suffering from strange illnesses. Witches are also the occult cause of unusual circumstances, such as hailstorms on a sunny day, extreme drought, or people suffering bad fortune.[4]
Navajo
There are several varieties of those considered to be witches by the Navajo. The most common variety seen in horror fiction by non-Navajo people is the yee naaldlooshii (a type of 'ánti'įhnii),[15] known in English as the skin-walker. They are believed to take the forms of animals in order to travel in secret and do harm to the innocent.[15] In the Navajo language, yee naaldlooshii translates to 'with it, he goes on all fours'.[15] Corpse powder or corpse poison (Navajo: áńt'į́, literally 'witchery' or 'harming') is a substance made from powdered corpses. The powder is used by witches to curse their victims.[5] Traditional Navajos usually hesitate to discuss things like witches and witchcraft with non-Navajos.[16] As with other traditional cultures, the term "witch" is never used for healers or others who help the community with their ceremonies and spiritual work.[12]
British America and the United States
Witchcraft was a pressing issue during the early colonization of the United States. Witchcraft in the colonies was the alleged power one had to use supernatural abilities to influence people or events.[17] In these early times, witchcraft was used to explain events that otherwise could not be understood.[18] People were killed over these accusations when in reality they held no real merit at all. Though the Salem Witch Trials is the most commonly known case of witchcraft, it happened all British North America. It was an epidemic in the United States that caused many to fear for their lives, whether they were being accused, or they were fearing those who were thought to be a part of it.
Many accused witches would be packed in local jails. In 1692, the royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, William Phips, created a special court in order to try the accused witches. The court was called the Court of Oyer and Terminer which means "to hear and determine". When the witches were being accused they were always guilty until proven innocent, rather than innocent until proven guilty. The presumption of being innocent is one of the key elements to a fair trial, which none of the accused were being given. Also, none of the witches were represented by counsel. They had no defense lawyers present which could have changed the trials drastically. When being accused of witchcraft, the accused were being stripped of even their basic rights that should have been granted under English law. The witchcraft that took place in early colonial America had an immense influence in law at the time and even today.[19]
The Inquisition in Europe lasting from the twelfth through eighteenth centuries created widespread precedent for the persecution of witches in colonial America,[20] and ran in parallel with the persecution of other groups deemed a threat to the Roman Catholic Church. Derived from papal authority and enforced through a collaboration of church and state,[20] the judicial procedures embodied in the Inquisition were aimed at prosecuting heretics, among whom were initially the Catharists in southern France and the Waldensians in Germany and Italy.[21] But by the emergence of the Spanish Inquisition in the late fifteenth century, Inquisitors targeted Conversos, Jews who had converted to Catholicism but were suspected of disloyalty to the faith.[22] It was in this period that the Church began linking witchcraft to heresy, particularly in southwestern Germany where witch hunts intensified by the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[23] It was, in fact, a German inquisitor and clergyman, Heinrich Kramer, who wrote the definitive bestseller on witchcraft and torture in 1486, Malleus Maleficarum, a book upon which other Inquisitors relied.[24] It was not until the sixteenth century that the Inquisition fanned out to hold ex-Muslims and Lutherans accountable for suspected heresy,[22] with the latter deemed the primary threat.[25] Although witch hunts themselves had been a rarity in New England prior to the Salem Witch Trials, historians view these trials as coextensive with witch hunts emerging during the Inquisition.[20]
Photograph of the Old State House, Hartford, Connecticut, that was built in 1796. This was the site of Meeting House Square, possibly where Alse Young was hanged.
Alse Young was the first person on record to be executed for witchcraft in Colonial America. She was a resident of Windsor, Connecticut, and was hanged at a meetinghouse. Alse would be the first of many more who were condemned in Colonial America for witchcraft.[26]
There was a woman who claimed to have seen her dead baby in a dream and was accused of witchcraft and ultimately killed.[27]Connecticut's witch trials were among the first trials in New England, but often get overlooked by the more numerous and publicized trials that occurred after. Connecticut had over 40 witchcraft cases which resulted in 16 executions. Witchcraft in early colonial America was never overlooked because those who participated were thought to have an agreement with the devil, therefore choosing him over God and obtaining supernatural powers.[28]
In 1645, Springfield, Massachusetts, experienced America's first accusations of witchcraft when husband and wife Hugh and Mary Parsons accused each other of witchcraft. At America's first witch trial, Hugh was found innocent, while Mary was acquitted of witchcraft but sentenced to be hanged for the death of her child. She died in prison.[29]
In 1648 Margaret Jones was the first person to be executed for witchcraft in Massachusetts Bay Colony. From 1645 to 1663, about eighty people throughout England's Massachusetts Bay Colony were accused of practicing witchcraft. Thirteen women and two men were executed in a witch-hunt that lasted throughout New England from 1645 to 1663.[30] The Salem witch trials followed in 1692–93. These witch trials were the most famous in British North America and took place in the coastal settlements near Salem, Massachusetts. Prior to the witch trials, nearly three hundred men and women had been suspected of partaking in witchcraft, and nineteen of these people were hanged, and one was "pressed to death".[31]
In Maryland, there is a legend of Moll Dyer, who escaped a fire set by fellow colonists only to die of exposure in December 1697. The historical record of Dyer is scant as all official records were burned in a courthouse fire, though the county courthouse has on display the rock where her frozen body was found. A letter from a colonist of the period describes her in most unfavourable terms. A local road is named after Dyer, where her homestead was said to have been. Many local families have their own version of the Moll Dyer affair, and her name is spoken with care in the rural southern counties.[34]
New York actually became a sanctuary for women accused of witchcraft since New York did not fall into the mass hysteria of accusing people of witchcraft. While New York was not a place of high and mass hysteria, they still had a few accusations. But New York was much more skeptical and had more critical thinking than most other states.
The first woman accused of witchcraft in New York was Katherine Harrison. She was jailed for about a year in Connecticut when she was first accused of witchcraft in 1669. Her husband then died, and she inherited a large sum of money. It is believed after her move her neighbors and towns people were jealous of her money and caused her of practicing dark arts. But she was never found guilty.
Another woman accused in New York was Elizabeth "Goody" Garlick, living during the 1650s in East Hampton, Long Island, would be accused of worse: witchcraft and causing the death of a 16-year-old neighbor who became ill due to a fever. Her case is well known today because of its gravity, and the role of mass hysteria the townspeople caused. Goody's accusations actually started thirty five years before the Salem witch trials. She was blamed for the teenagers' death, and eleven of her neighbors accused her of poising their breast milk, leading babies to get sick. She was also accused of animal and livestock deaths.
Jane "Naut" Kanniff is thought to be the subject of New York's last witchcraft trial, in 1816. She was accused as a witch for wearing colorful clothing, she had a black cat and a talking parrot, and often collected herbs to soothe aliments. She was put to the test for the accusations by weighing her against the dutch bible. But since she was heavier than the Bible, she was considered not a witch.
Even though there was multiple accusations, the witch trials in New York were few and far between.[35]
Some of Mattson's neighbors claimed that she had bewitched cattle.[36] Charges of practicing witchcraft were brought before the Pennsylvania Provincial Council in February 1683 (under Julian calendar).[37] This occurred nineteen years after the Swedish territory became a British common law colony and subject to English Witchcraft Act 1603.[38] Accused by several neighbors, as well as her own daughter in law, Mattson's alleged crimes included making threats against neighbors, causing cows to give little milk,[39] bewitching and killing livestock and appearing to witnesses in spectral form. On February 27, 1683, charges against Mattson and a neighbor Gertro (a.k.a. Yeshro) Jacobsson, wife of Hendrick Jacobsson, were brought by the Attorney General before a grand jury of 21 men overseen by the colony's proprietor, William Penn. The grand jury returned a true bill indictment that afternoon, and the cases proceeded to trial.[37] A petit jury of twelve men was selected by Penn and an interpreter was appointed for the Finnish women, who did not speak English.[40] Penn barred the use of prosecution and defense lawyers, conducted the questioning himself, and permitted the introduction of unsubstantiated hearsay.[39] Penn himself gave the closing charge and directions to the jury, but what he told them was not transcribed. According to the minutes of the Provincial Council, dated February 27, 1683, the jury returned with a verdict of "Guilty of having the Comon Fame of a Witch, but not Guilty in manner and Forme as Shee stands Endicted."[39][41]
Thus Mattson was found guilty of having the reputation of a witch, but not guilty of bewitching animals. Neither woman was convicted of witchcraft. "Hence the superstitious got enough to have their thinking affirmed. Those less superstitious, and justice minded, got what they wanted."[42] The accused were released on their husbands' posting recognizance bonds of 50 pounds and promising six months' good behavior.[43][37]
A popular legend tells of William Penn dismissing the charges against Mattson by affirming her legal right to fly on a broomstick over Philadelphia, saying "Well, I know of no law against it."[39] The record fails to show any such commentary, but the story probably reflects popular views of Penn's socially progressive Quaker values.[44]
Tennessee
Accusations of witchcraft and wizardry led to the prosecution of a man in Tennessee as recently as 1833.[45][46][47]
Colonial Virginia seemed a scary place that held spirits in its dark forests.[48] When the colony's English settlers first came to the New World, they believed strongly in the devil's power. They believed Virginia Indians to be devil worshippers and were accusing one another of practicing witchcraft.[18] Witchcraft in Virginia was less common compared to neighboring states, but nevertheless, evidence still shows that over two dozen trials were still taken place between 1626 and 1720.[18] Judges were even administering water tests in order to find out if the accused were actually guilty or not. Records even show that the last witchcraft trial that took place on the mainland colonies happened in Virginia around 1730. Since then, the trials that occurred in Virginia are often forgotten as a key aspect of witchcraft in Colonial America.[citation needed]
Witchcraft is the use of alleged supernatural powers of magic. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic or supernatural powers to inflict harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meaning. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, "Witchcraft thus defined exists more in the imagination", but it "has constituted for many cultures a viable explanation of evil in the world". The belief in witchcraft has been found throughout history in a great number of societies worldwide. Most of these societies have used protective magic or counter-magic against witchcraft, and have shunned, banished, imprisoned, physically punished or killed alleged witches. Anthropologists use the term "witchcraft" for similar beliefs about harmful occult practices in different cultures, and these societies often use the term when speaking in English.
A witch hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. Practicing evil spells or incantations was proscribed and punishable in early human civilizations in the Middle East. In medieval Europe, witch-hunts often arose in connection to charges of heresy from Christianity. An intensive period of witch-hunts occurring in Early Modern Europe and to a smaller extent Colonial America, took place from about 1450 to 1750, spanning the upheavals of the Counter Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, resulting in an estimated 35,000 to 60,000 executions. The last executions of people convicted as witches in Europe took place in the 18th century. In other regions, like Africa and Asia, contemporary witch-hunts have been reported from sub-Saharan Africa and Papua New Guinea, and official legislation against witchcraft is still found in Saudi Arabia, Cameroon and South Africa today.
The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused. Thirty people were found guilty, nineteen of whom were executed by hanging. One other man, Giles Corey, died under torture after refusing to enter a plea, and at least five people died in the disease-ridden jails.
Margaret Mattson was one of two women tried and acquitted in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania for witchcraft in 1683.
The Witchcraft Acts were a historical succession of governing laws in England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the British colonies on penalties for the practice, or—in later years—rather for pretending to practice witchcraft.
Elizabeth Parris was one of the young girls who accused other people of being witches during the Salem witch trials. The accusations made by Parris and her cousin Abigail Williams caused the direct death of 20 Salem residents: 19 were hanged, while another, Giles Corey, was pressed to death.
John Proctor was a landowner in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He and his wife Elizabeth were tried and convicted of witchcraft as part of the Salem Witch Trials, whereupon he was hanged.
Elizabeth Proctor was convicted of witchcraft in the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. She was the wife of John Proctor, who was convicted and executed.
Tituba was an enslaved Native American woman who was one of the first to be accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693.
Bridget Bishop was the first person executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials in 1692. Nineteen were hanged, and one, Giles Corey, was pressed to death. Altogether, about 200 people were tried.
Sarah Good was one of the first three women to be accused of witchcraft in the Salem witch trials, which occurred in 1692 in colonial Massachusetts.
Martha Corey was accused and convicted of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials, on September 9, 1692, and was hanged on September 22, 1692. Her second husband, Giles Corey, was also accused and killed.
Ann Foster was an Andover widow accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.
Sarah Osborne (also variously spelled Osbourne, Osburne, or Osborn; née Warren, formerly Prince, was a colonist in the Massachusetts Bay colony and one of the first women to be accused of witchcraft in the Salem witch trials of 1692. Sarah Osborn was suggested to be a witch by Sarah Good. Sarah Good said she had been tormenting the girls.
Mercy Lewis was an accuser during the Salem Witch Trials. She was born in Falmouth, Maine. Mercy Lewis, formally known as Mercy Allen, was the child of Philip Lewis and Mary (Cass) Lewis.
In the early modern period, from about 1400 to 1775, about 100,000 people were prosecuted for witchcraft in Europe and British America. Between 40,000 and 60,000 were executed, almost all in Europe. The witch-hunts were particularly severe in parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Prosecutions for witchcraft reached a high point from 1560 to 1630, during the Counter-Reformation and the European wars of religion. Among the lower classes, accusations of witchcraft were usually made by neighbors, and women made formal accusations as much as men did. Magical healers or 'cunning folk' were sometimes prosecuted for witchcraft, but seem to have made up a minority of the accused. Roughly 80% of those convicted were women, most of them over the age of 40. In some regions, convicted witches were burnt at the stake, the traditional punishment for religious heresy.
Abigail Faulkner, sometimes called Abigail Faulkner Sr., was an American woman accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials in 1692. In the frenzy that followed, Faulkner's sister Elizabeth (Dane) Johnson (1641–1722), her sister-in-law Deliverance Dane, two of her daughters, two of her nieces, and a nephew, would all be accused of witchcraft and arrested. Faulkner was convicted and sentenced to death, but her execution was delayed due to pregnancy. Before she gave birth, Faulkner was pardoned by the governor and released from prison.
The witch trials in Connecticut, also sometimes referred to as the Hartford witch trials, occurred from 1647 to 1663. They were the first large-scale witch trials in the American colonies, predating the Salem Witch Trials by nearly thirty years. John M. Taylor lists a total of 37 cases, 11 of which resulted in executions. The execution of Alse Young of Windsor in the spring of 1647 was the beginning of the witch panic in the area, which would not come to an end until 1670 with the release of Katherine Harrison.
The Witch trials in Portugal were perhaps the fewest in all of Europe. Similar to the Spanish Inquisition in neighboring Spain, the Portuguese Inquisition preferred to focus on the persecution of heresy and did not consider witchcraft to be a priority. In contrast to the Spanish Inquisition, however, the Portuguese Inquisition was much more efficient in preventing secular courts from conducting witch trials, and therefore almost managed to keep Portugal free from witch trials. Only seven people are known to have been executed for sorcery in Portugal.
During a 104-year period from 1626 to 1730, there are documented Virginia Witch Trials, hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in Colonial Virginia. More than two dozen people are documented having been accused, including two men. Virginia was the first colony to have a formal accusation of witchcraft in 1626, and the first formal witch trial in 1641.
1 2 3 Breslaw, E. G. (2011). "Witchcraft in Early North America". Journal of American History. 98 (2): 504. doi:10.1093/jahist/jar254.
1 2 3 Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America; Edited by HELEN A. BERGER; Copyright: 2005; Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press; https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fh7kf
↑ Kilpatrick, Alan (1998). The Night Has a Naked Soul - Witchcraft and Sorcery Among the Western Cherokee. Syracuse University Press.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Geertz, Armin W. (Summer 2011). "Hopi Indian Witchcraft and Healing: On Good, Evil, and Gossip". American Indian Quarterly. 35 (3): 372–393. doi:10.1353/aiq.2011.a447052. ISSN0095-182X. OCLC659388380. PMID22069814. To the Hopis, witches or evil-hearted persons deliberately try to destroy social harmony by sowing discontent, doubt, and criticism through evil gossip as well as by actively combating medicine men. ... Admitting [he practiced witchcraft] could cost him his life and occult power
↑ Simmons, Marc (1980). Witchcraft in the Southwest: Spanish and Indian Supernaturalism on the Rio Grande. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN978-0-8032-9116-4.
↑ Wall, Leon and William Morgan, Navajo-English Dictionary. Hippocrene Books, New York City, 1998 ISBN0-7818-0247-4.
↑ Silverblatt, I. (1983). "The evolution of witchcraft and the meaning of healing in colonial Andean society". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 7 (4): 413–427. doi:10.1007/BF00052240. PMID6362989. S2CID23596915.
↑ Mooney, James. "120. The Raven Mocker". Myths of the Cherokee. Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology 1897-98, Part I. [1900]. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
1 2 3 Wall, Leon and William Morgan, Navajo-English Dictionary. Hippocrene Books, New York City, 1998 ISBN0-7818-0247-4.[pageneeded]
↑ Keene, Dr. Adrienne, "Magic in North America Part 1: Ugh.Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine " at Native Appropriations, 8 March 2016. Accessed 9 April 2016: "What happens when Rowling pulls this in, is we as Native people are now opened up to a barrage of questions about these beliefs and traditions ... but these are not things that need or should be discussed by outsiders. At all. I'm sorry if that seems "unfair," but that's how our cultures survive."
↑ Lewis, Ioan M, and Jeffrey Burton Russell. "Witchcraft." Encyclopædia Britannica, 22 Aug. 2016,
1 2 3 Pavlac, Brian (2009). Witch Hunts in the Western World: Persecution and Punishment from the Inquisition Through the Salem Trials. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
↑ Fraden, Judith Bloom, Dennis Brindell Fraden. The Salem Witch Trials. Marshall Cavendish. 2008. p. 15.[ISBNmissing]
↑ George Brown Tindall; David Emory Shi (2013). America: A Narrative History. Vol.1 (Brief Ninthed.). W.W. Norton & Company. p.85. ISBN978-0-393-91265-4.
↑ Some of The Famous Witch Trials In Pennsylvania (The Realness of Witchcraft In America. Northvegr Foundation) Archived 2009-08-27 at the Wayback Machine
1 2 3 "The Fame Of A Witch" (The Pennsylvania Lawyer. Craig R. Shagin, Published by the Pennsylvania Bar Association, September–October 2016)
↑ Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania..., vol. 1, J. Severns, Philadelphia: PA Provincial Council, 1852, pp. 95–96.
↑ PA History Witch – Margaret Mattson was Profiled and Arrested in the 1680s, (by Tom Roy Smith, AKA The Ghost of William Penn. Delaware County Daily Times, October 15, 2013)
↑ The Century Magazine, (by J. M. Buckley. December 1891 Vol. XLIII, No. 2) "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2003-05-02. Retrieved 2003-04-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
↑ Weird Pennsylvania. (by Matt Lake. New York: Sterling Publishers. 2005)[ISBNmissing][pageneeded]
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