Xanthocnemis zealandica, commonly known as common redcoat damselfly,[1]red damselfly, or red coat damselfly, is one of the most common native New Zealanddamselflies.[2] Adult damselflies are often seen flying around vegetation close to streams.
X. zealandica has a 2–3 year life cycle; the shorter one was observed near sea level while the longer one was characteristic to a mid-elevation site (579m (1,900ft)above sea level). Some individuals at the lowland sites may even complete their life cycle in one year.[3]X. zealandica nymphs are widespread across New Zealand, occurring in rocky and weedy streams and ponds.[4] It is predominantly a low-altitude species but can reach 1,945m (6,381ft) above sea level.[1] The nymphs of the red damselfly are identified by their pointed tail gills and long hairs by the tip.[4]
Taxonomy
This species was first described by Robert McLachlan in 1873 and named Telebasis zealandica.[5] Until 1981, it was the only species in the endemic New Zealand genus Xanthocnemis.[6][7]
Description
Xanthocnemis zealandica is the only predominantly red damselfly found in New Zealand.[8] Its name is attributed to the bold red colour of the male, decorated with black markings.[8] Female zealandica have different colour schemes, either bright red with black markings at the tip of the abdomen or black with yellow stripes along the side of the abdomen.[9] However, the colour often varies from deep yellow to orange-red as the individual matures.[9]
Damselflies are often confused with dragonflies, because they both belong to the order Odonata and share similar identifiable features.[10] A major distinguishing factor between a damselfly and dragonfly is the wing position when resting on a surface: damselflies fold the wings vertical and upright, as opposed to dragonflies leaving them horizontal and spread out.[10] Damselflies flutter more in flight, in comparison to the hovering speed of dragonflies.[11] Therefore, damselflies tend to remain closer to the ground and stay close to their territory.[11] Similar to their close relative, the damselfly can be determined by the noticeably large eyes disproportionate to their head, alongside distinct veins on the wings.[10]
Male Xanthocnemis zealandica measure roughly 24-38mm in length, with a wingspan of 15-23mm, whereas the female zealandica tends to be slightly larger, measuring around 28-39mm with a wingspan of 18-23mm.[9]
Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs have a lack of resemblance in comparison to adult damselflies.[10] Although they also have unproportionate eyes regarding the rest of their body, alongside well-developed legs.[12]Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs have no gills; therefore, they are only capable of breathing by pumping air out of the rectum.[12] They are often identifiable by their caudal lamellae (gills), although considering their well-developed legs and gills, they are only capable of moving around in the water by wiggling their bodies to gain momentum.[12] The larvae of the red damselfly are identified by their pointed tail gills and long hairs by the tip.[4] Of the six species of damselfly in New Zealand, Xanthocnemis zealandica is the most common and easiest species to identify.[13]
Distribution and habitat
Xanthocnemis zealandica is an endemic native species of New Zealand[13] and is widespread and common on North, South and Stewart Islands.[14][15]
Xanthocnemis zealandica is considered a common resident throughout New Zealand and is usually abundant anywhere with clean, fresh running water.[13]Xanthocnemis zealandica are capable of living within many habitats, so there is potential for this species to be present in every lake, swamp, pond and slow-moving stream in the North Island, South Island and Stewart Island.[9] It is predominantly a low-altitude species but can reach 1,945m (6,381ft) above sea level.[1]
Habitat preferences
Xanthocnemis zealandica tends to be found near plants along the edges of lakes, flowing streams, rivers, swamps and ponds throughout the country.[16] It can be found in brackish coastal water habitats to alpine tarns throughout New Zealand.[8] Females tend to prefer laying their eggs in slow-moving water including ponds, lakes or puddles nearby a dominant river course.[9] However, this will vary depending on whether they are living in the South Island or in the North Island.[9] Females from the North Island often deposit their eggs in slow moving forest streams, whereas South Island females tend to avoid running water in general, favoring mountain tarns instead.[9]
Life cycle and phenology
X. zealandica has a 2–3 year life cycle; the shorter one was observed near sea level while the longer one was characteristic to a mid-elevation site (579m (1,900ft)above sea level). Some individuals at the lowland site may even complete their life cycle in one year.[17] The Xanthocnemis zealandica life cycle is incomplete metamorphosis, with the three major lifecycle stages consisting of egg, nymph and adult.[8]
Xanthocnemis zealandica has a unique approach to copulation during mid-summer months, consisting of the male and female grasping each other whilst extending their bodies to form a heart-like shape.[12] The reproductive strategy is oviparousiteroparous, meaning they lay eggs with little or no significant embryonic development within the mother, and the mother has multiple reproductive cycles, allowing females to mate more than once in a lifetime.[16] Copulation often takes place in the air, demonstrating their incredible flying ability.[10] The male Xanthocnemis zealandica extends his lower abdomen forwards to store a packet of sperm in his middle abdomen region, in place for the female to bend back her lower abdomen to retrieve the packet of sperm.[10] This process tends to be broad in timescale, taking from a few minutes up to several hours.[11] Adults are most active at high air temperatures and they are not active when the temperature of the air falls below 14°C.[18] Mature females deposit one egg at a time, just below water level, whereas mature males patrol these areas and sometimes form swarming groups.[18]
The lifecycle of Xanthocnemis zealandica begins as the female lays her eggs in a nearby freshwater stream, depositing the eggs into slits in aquatic plants below the water surface or the surrounding swampy ground.[12] In some cases, the female can be completely submerged for up to 30 minutes, while the male fends off other males competing for the female.[9] Unlike dragonflies, the damselfly eggs are cylindrical in shape.[11] Depending on the climate and water temperature, the eggs may take longer to hatch, waiting until the water temperature rises to ensure the survival of the nymphs.[11] Once the eggs hatch in late spring – early summer the nymphs spend two years of their life among aquatic vegetation preying on smaller species while they grow.[16] In comparison to dragonflies, damselfly require fewer moults and a shorter duration in the aquatic environment.[11] Once ready to leave the water, the nymph crawls up stems of surrounding vegetation, clay or stones, molts out of its aquatic shell and rests until its fresh wings are dried and stiffened, allowing it to eventually take flight for the first time.[13] This transition usually commences in the morning and can take many hours to complete.[9]
Due to the lack of practice in the air, young adults are incredibly vulnerable in the open landscape, causing them to retreat and hide amongst grassy areas for a few days, as this provides protection from surrounding predators.[9] Once mature around mid-October to mid-March, they return to the water and hunt within a set territory, amongst the bankside and aquatic vegetation.[9] However, at night, they retreat 10–20m from the water edge to seek shelter and protection, perched amongst vegetation.[9]
Diet, prey and predators
Diet and foraging
All species of damselfly in New Zealand are carnivorous, preying on caddisfly, moths, aphids and crane flies as a food source.[12] The main diet of Xanthocnemis zealandica consists of Culicidae and Simuliidae.[10] They catch their prey while in flight, extending out their long bristly legs to form a basket, enabling the ability to scoop up smaller insects mid-flight and direct them into its jaws.[10] Due to their sharp mouthparts, they can cut up the prey into bite-size pieces.[10] Adults are successful predators in the air due to their acute vision and eyes containing around 10,000–30,000 individual facets, therefore making them extremely aware of surrounding motion.[10] Male X. zealandica can be very territorial when it comes to hunting.[8] They often chase off other damselflies that enter their hunting territory, which usually consists of roughly a 15 square metre area.[8]
Damselfly nymphs have a different food source within the freshwater streams as opposed to on land and in the air, including tadpoles, aquatic invertebrates, small fish and other damselfly nymphs.[19] Although similar to the adult damselfly, the prey is dependent on the individual’s size and only consists of smaller species.[12]Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs are incredibly stealthy when it comes to hunting for prey within the aquatic environment.[10] They tend to hide in the water amongst vegetation and debris, waiting for the perfect opportunity to catch their prey.[10] They use their long narrow extensible labium to capture and grasp onto their prey.[9]Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs can also be very territorial within the aquatic environment.[20] They often use the same hunting perches for many days, defending their territory with various displays of physical attacks, including striking prey with their jaw and swinging their abdomen to warn off the intruder.[20]
Predators, parasites and diseases
Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs are often preyed on by various predatory fish, including upland bullies, whereas the adult damselfly is most at risk from birds.[21] Once emerging from the water and transitioning from the nymph stage to the adult stage, the immature damselflies are extremely vulnerable to bird predation, alongside the increased risk of parasitism by mites.[9] In November and December 2001, McKee and colleagues explored the infestation of larval water mites (Arrenurus spp.) found on the body of Xanthocnemis zealandica [18]. The study focused on a single population in Canterbury, targeting both immature and mature adults, although there seemed to be a higher abundance of infestation within the immature adults.[18] The results showed the infestation did not seem to severely impact the mature males from mating, although there was a maximum of 62 mites identified on each infested host, highlighting the abundance of the infestation.[18] Other studies have shown that asymmetry in the wings of Xanthocnemis zealandica could be a result of a poisonous insecticide. By noticing a lack of symmetry in the wings, this could indicate and help determine whether insecticides are a pollutant within the local water source.[22] Although this doesn’t cause a major impact to the Xanthocnemis zealandica, it still imposes a threat to the surrounding aquatic environment.[22] Due to climate change, droughts within stream habitats can affect Xanthocnemis zealandica nymphs, although fortunately they have an effective response to the river drying, by burying themselves in damp mud often for several months.[8]
Other information
Damselflies are the most ancient flying insects, evolving from ancestors that lived between 350 and 280 million years ago, before dinosaurs evolved. These ancestors had wingspan of up to 76cm, making them the largest insect to exist during their time period.[10]
Xanthocnemis zealandica has the potential to be an excellent example organism for studies targeting evolution.[9] Due to some female Xanthocnemis zealandica having a preference to location of laying eggs in the North Island in comparison to the South Island, these species have the potential to evolve into separate species.[9]Xanthocnemis zealandica found in North Island forested streams have also been recognized as X. sobrina, whereas the redcoat damselfly found in South Island alpine tarns have been recognized as X. sinclairi [9]. Considering that these two potential sister species are living within different conditions, they are likely to evolve distinct traits, relevant to their habitats.[9]
Xanthocnemis zealandica also has incredible awareness and sharp reaction time, due to 80% of its brainpower being devoted specifically towards processing visual images.[8]
Red damselfly adult male observed in Christchurch, New Zealand
Red damselfly nymph observed on the North Island, New Zealand
Red damselflies sitting on a log at Zealandia Ecosanctuary, Wellington, New Zealand
Related Research Articles
Odonata is an order of predatory flying insects that includes the dragonflies and damselflies. The two groups are distinguished with dragonflies usually being bulkier with large compound eyes together and wings spread up or out at rest, while damselflies are usually more slender with eyes placed apart and wings folded together along body at rest. Adult odonates can land and perch, but rarely walk.
A dragonfly is a flying insect belonging to the infraorder Anisoptera below the order Odonata. About 3,000 extant species of dragonflies are known. Most are tropical, with fewer species in temperate regions. Loss of wetland habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world. Adult dragonflies are characterised by a pair of large, multifaceted, compound eyes, two pairs of strong, transparent wings, sometimes with coloured patches, and an elongated body. Many dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration, making them conspicuous in flight. An adult dragonfly's compound eyes have nearly 24,000 ommatidia each.
Damselflies are flying insects of the suborder Zygoptera in the order Odonata. They are similar to dragonflies but are usually smaller and have slimmer bodies. Most species fold the wings along the body when at rest, unlike dragonflies which hold the wings flat and away from the body. Damselflies have existed since the Late Jurassic, and are found on every continent except Antarctica.
The emperor dragonfly or blue emperor is a large species of hawker dragonfly of the family Aeshnidae. It is the bulkiest dragonfly in most of Europe, including the United Kingdom, although exceeded in some areas by other species.
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Enallagma cyathigerum is a species found mainly between latitudes 40°N and 72°N; It is widely distributed in the Palearctic, and the Nearctic species Enallagma annexum was at one time considered to be synonymous with it. The species can reach a length of 32 to 35 mm. It is common in many different countries including Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, the United States of America, and South Korea. Damselflies are an important link between the health of the aquatic ecosystem and its response to climate change.
The large red damselfly is a species of damselflies belonging to the family Coenagrionidae. It is native to the western Palearctic.
The blue-tailed damselfly or common bluetail is a damselfly, belonging to the family Coenagrionidae.
Coenagrionidae or are a family of damselflies, also known as pond damselfies, in the order Odonata and the suborder Zygoptera. The Zygoptera are the damselflies, which although less known than the dragonflies, are no less common. More than 1,300 species are in this family, making it the largest damselfly family. The family Coenagrionidae has six subfamilies: Agriocnemidinae, Argiinae, Coenagrioninae, Ischnurinae, Leptobasinae, and Pseudagrioninae.
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The Cordulegastridae are a family of Odonata (dragonflies) from the suborder Anisoptera. They are commonly known as spiketails. Some vernacular names for the species of this family are biddie and flying adder. They have large, brown or black bodies with yellow markings, and narrow unpatterned wings. Their bright eyes touch at a single point, and they can be found along small, clear, woodland streams, flying slowly 30 to 70 cm above the water. When disturbed, however, they can fly very rapidly. They usually hunt high in forest vegetation, and prefer to capture prey resting on leaves or branches.
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Megalagrion leptodemas, commonly referred to as the Crimson Hawaiian damselfly, is one of the rarest and most endangered Megalagrion species that is endemic to the island of Oahu in Hawaii. It is currently labeled as endangered by the ESA and critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The general biology of Crimson Hawaiian damselflies is similar to other narrow-winged damselflies. Megalagrion leptodemas used to be found in the mountains of Ko’olau and Wai'anae but is now only found in four watersheds in the Ko’olau Mountains. The species is threatened by habitat loss and non-native species. They have limited habitat and small, scattered populations which can affect their future population stability. Conservation efforts for this species should concentrate on both habitat management and control of invasive species.
Megalagrion nesiotes is a species of damselfly in the family Coenagrionidae. Its common name is flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly. In the past, the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly lived on the islands of Hawaii and Maui, in the U.S. state of Hawaii. Currently, there is only one population left in east Maui. Limited distribution and small population size make this species especially vulnerable to habitat loss and exotic species invasion. The flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly was last found in 2005. Little is known about this species because of the lack of observation. In 2010, the species was federally listed as an endangered species in the United States.
The Quebec Emerald or Robert's Emerald is a species of dragonfly in the family Corduliidae. It is one of 42 species in the genus Somatochlora found in the Northern Hemisphere. It is one of the rarest members of the Odonata to be found in Canada and one of the most recently described. Adrien Robert, a Canadian entomologist, Cleric of Saint Viator, and professor at the University of Montreal, first described S. brevicincta in 1954.
Rambur's forktail is a member of the damselfly family Coenagrionidae. Males are green with blue on abdominal segments 8 and 9. Females are orange-red, olive green, or similar to males in coloration. This is the most widespread New World Ischnura, occurring throughout the Americas from the United States to Chile, as well as Hawaii and the Antilles.
Austrolestes colensonis, commonly known as the blue damselfly, is a species of damselfly of the family Lestidae. It is endemic to New Zealand and can commonly be found throughout the country, and at any time of the year. It is New Zealand's largest damselfly, and only blue odonate.
Diphlebia euphoeoides, sometimes spelled Diphlebia euphaeoides, known as the tropical rockmaster, is an Australian species of broad winged damselfly. It is one of a group known as the azure damselflies. It is found in Queensland (Australia) and Papua New Guinea. It typically occurs near lakes, waterfalls or streams at relatively low altitudes, and is occasionally seen near dry pools.
Odonata are insects with an incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous). The aquatic larva or nymph hatches from an egg, and develops through eight to seventeen instars before leaving the water and emerging as the winged adult or imago.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Parkinson, B; Horne, D (1 July 2007). Photographic Guide to Insects of New Zealand. New Zealand: Upstart Press.
1 2 3 4 Lindsey, T; Morris, R (1 January 2011). Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife. New Zealand: Harper Collins Australia/NZ.
1 2 Hardersen, S; Wratten, S.D; Frampton, C (2001). "Does carbaryl increase fluctuating asymmetry in damselflies under field conditions? A mesocosm experiment with Xanthocnemis zealandica (Odonata: Zygoptera)". Journal of Applied Ecology. 36 (4): 534–543. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.1999.00417.x.
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