The 1821 Norfolk and Long Island Hurricane was an intense and record breaking tropical cyclone that devastated the East Coast of the United States in early September &was one of four known tropical cyclones that have made landfall in New York City. It has been estimated that a similar hurricane would cause about $250 billion in damages if a similar storm were to occur in 2014.[2] Despite that,an even earlier and more intense hurricane struck the greater area during the pre-Columbian era (between 1278 and 1438) which left evidence that was detected in South Jersey via paleotempestological research.[3] A third and more recent storm was the 1893 New York hurricane,while the fourth was Hurricane Irene in 2011.
A tropical cyclone was first observed on September 1 off the southeast coast of the United States. Initially,it was believed to be the same storm that struck Guadeloupe on the same day,though subsequent research indicated there were two separate storms.[4] The hurricane then tracked by the Bahamas,and had likely already attained major hurricane status while in the open Atlantic. It then began approaching the United States coastline with sustained winds estimated of at least 130mph (210km/h). Some estimates suggest the storm likely reached high-end Category 4 to Category 5 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale sometime before making landfall near Wilmington,North Carolina.[5] This would make it the most intense tropical cyclone to make landfall at such a latitude in the world. It later turned to the northeast to cross the Pamlico Sound.[6]
The hurricane then accelerated northeastward,and passed over the Hampton Roads area early on September 3. After crossing the Chesapeake Bay,the cyclone made its 2nd landfall around Assateague Island shortly before striking modern day Ocean City,Maryland likely as a high-end Category 3 or Category 4 storm.[6] It then continued to traversed the Delmarva Peninsula near the Atlantic coastline. At ~1500 UTC,the eye passed directly over Cape Henlopen,Delaware where a thirty-minute period of calm was reported. The storm then began its journey across the Delaware Bay until it made landfall and passed over Cape May,New Jersey where a fifteen-minute calm was also reported.[7] Modern researchers estimate it was still a Category 3 or 4 hurricane upon striking New Jersey,and one of few hurricanes to hit the state.[8][9]
The hurricane continued to parallel the coastline just inland until it exited into Lower New York Bay where the hurricane made its fourth and final landfall in New York City at ~1930 UTC,during a very low tide.[3] Some researchers suggest it was still a Category 3 at the time,which would make it the only major hurricane to directly hit the city.[10] The storm had an unusually fast forward speed of 35mph (55km/h) and pressure of 965 mbar upon moving ashore.[10][1] The storm then continued northeastward through New England,and began losing its identity upon entering Massachusetts on September 4.[11] One researcher suggest that the cyclone tracked northeastward over southeastern Maine,[6] while another assessed the storm as passing far west of Maine.[12]
Based on the arrangement of effects caused in New England from the storm,meteorologist William C. Redfield deduced that the wind field ¢er of tropical cyclones are circular in nature. Previous of this,they were believed to have been in a straight line.[12]
Impact
A sketch made in 1876 of the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane hitting Chincoteague,Virginia.
The continuous cataracts of rain swept impetuously along, darkening the expanse of vision and apparently confounding the heaven, earth and seas in a general chaos
In North Carolina, a powerful storm surge flooded large portions of Portsmouth Island; residents estimated the island would have been completely under water had the worst of the storm lasted for two more hours. Strong winds occurred across eastern North Carolina, resulting in at least 76 destroyed houses. Numerous people were killed in Currituck.[7]
The strongest winds of the hurricane lasted for about an hour in southeastern Virginia, after which the storm rapidly abated. Several houses were completely destroyed, with many others receiving moderate to severe damage. The winds destroyed most of the roof of the courthouse, and uprooted trees across the region; fallen tree limbs damaged a stone bridge in Norfolk. The hurricane produced a strong storm surge along the Virginia coastline, which reached at least 10 feet (3.0m) at Pungoteague along the Delmarva Peninsula. The storm surge, which reached several hundred yards inland, destroyed two bridges and flooded many warehouses along the Elizabeth River. Rough waves grounded the USSGuerriere and the USSCongress, and also destroyed several schooners and brigs. Along the eastern shore, the storm surge flooded barrier islands along the Atlantic coastline, causing severe crop damage and downing many trees. Several houses were destroyed, and at Pungoteague the impact of the hurricane was described as "unexampled destruction". At least five people drowned in Chincoteague. The storm is considered to be one of the most violent hurricanes on record in the Mid-Atlantic, and caused $200,000 in damage in Virginia (1821 USD, or ~$5.6 million 2024 USD).[6]
Gale-force winds affected the Delmarva Peninsula and on Poplar Island in Talbot County, Maryland, where winds peaked ~1600 UTC on September 3.[7] The strongest winds were confined to the Atlantic coastline, however outer rainbands still produced heavy rainfall in greater Baltimore-Washington D.C. area.[13] Fierce winds were observed in Cape Henlopen, Delaware, with the strongest gales occurring after the eye passed over the area.[7]
Upon making landfall on Cape May, New Jersey, the cyclone produced a 5-foot (1.5m) storm surge on the Delaware Bay side of the city.[13] Lasting for several hours, the hurricane-force winds were described as "blowing with great violence",[7] and caused widespread devastation across the region.[13] Wind gusts in Cape May County reached over 110mph (180km/h), and around 130mph (210km/h) in Atlantic County.[2] In Little Egg Harbor, the hurricane caused catastrophic damaged to the port. Strong winds reached as far inland as Philadelphia, where winds of over 40mph (65km/h) downed trees and chimneys. Precipitation in the city accrued to 3.92 inches (100mm). Further to the north, the hurricane destroyed a windmill at Bergen Point, New Jersey.[13] Despite the hurricane occurring during low tide, it still produced a storm surge of over 29 feet (8.8m) along several portions of the New Jersey coastline, causing significant overwash.[3]
The hurricane also produced an extraordinarily high storm surge of 13 feet (4.0m) in merely an hour at Battery Park; a record only broken 191 years later by Hurricane Sandy. Manhattan Island was completely flooded to Canal Street. Even despite the record flooding, the storm surge would have been much greater if it had not struck at low tide.[14] Fortunately, only a few deaths were reported in the city due to the affected neighborhoods being much less populated than the modern day.[15] The hurricane also brought light rainfall and strong winds that left severe damage across the city. High tides occurred along the Hudson River. Strong waves and winds blew many ships ashore along Long Island in which sinking ship killed 17 people. Along Long Island, the winds destroyed several buildings and left crops destroyed.[13]
In New England, the hurricane produced widespread gale-force winds, with damage being greatest in Connecticut.[11] The Black Rock Harbor Light in Black Rock, Connecticut was later destroyed on September 21, due to the storm.[13][16] Elsewhere in the state, the winds damaged & destroyed many churches, houses and buildings. Moderate crop damage to fruit was reported as well. The strong winds extended into eastern Massachusetts as well, though little damage was reported in the Boston area.[11] Hurricane-force winds reached as far north as Maine.[2]
Historical context
In 2014, the Swiss Re insurance company estimates that a modern-day hurricane of with the exact track would cause $107 billion (2014 USD) in direct property damage. Damage would total over $1 billion in each of Atlantic (NJ), Ocean (NJ), New Haven (CT), & Hartford (CT) county. Damage would also reach over $2 billion in each Nassau (NY), Suffolk (NY), and Fairfield county in Long Island & Connecticut. Indirect losses, including lost tax revenue + lower real estate would reach near $250 billion nationwide after a similar storm; or ~$332 Billion (2024 USD) when including inflation. The damage would be far greater than what occurred during Hurricane Sandy in 2012, which caused $68.7 billion (2012 USD) in damage when it struck New Jersey.[2][17]
Hurricane Gloria was a powerful hurricane that caused significant damage along the east coast of the United States and in Atlantic Canada during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the first significant tropical cyclone to strike the northeastern United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 and the first major storm to affect New York City and Long Island directly since Hurricane Donna in 1960. Gloria was a Cape Verde hurricane originating from a tropical wave on September 16 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. After remaining a weak tropical cyclone for several days, Gloria intensified into a hurricane on September 22 north of the Lesser Antilles. During that time, the storm had moved generally westward, although it turned to the northwest due to a weakening of the ridge. Gloria quickly intensified on September 24, and the next day reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). The hurricane weakened before striking the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 27. Later that day, Gloria made two subsequent landfalls on Long Island and across the coastline of western Connecticut, before becoming extratropical on September 28 over New England. The remnants moved through Atlantic Canada and went on to impact Western Europe, eventually dissipating on October 4.
The decade of the 1830s featured the 1830s Atlantic hurricane seasons. While data is not available for every storm that occurred, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation occurs between June 1 and November 30.
The decade of the 1800s featured the 1800s Atlantic hurricane seasons. While data is not available for every storm that occurred, some parts of the coastline were populated enough to give data of hurricane occurrences. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation occurs between June 1 and November 30.
Hurricane Esther was the first large tropical cyclone to be discovered by satellite imagery. The fifth tropical cyclone, named storm, and hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season, Esther developed from an area of disturbed weather hundreds of miles west-southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands on September 10. Moving northwestward, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Esther on September 11, before reaching hurricane intensity on the following day. Early on September 13, Esther curved westward and deepened into a major hurricane. The storm remained a Category 3 hurricane for about four days and gradually moved in a west-northwestward direction. Late on September 17, Esther strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) on September 18. The storm curved north-northeastward on September 19, while offshore of North Carolina. Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 3 intensity on September 21. The storm turned eastward early on the following day, and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm.
The 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane was among the most damaging hurricanes in the Mid-Atlantic states in the eastern United States. The sixth storm and third hurricane of the very active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season, it formed in the eastern Atlantic, where it moved west-northwestward and eventually became a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale. A strong ridge over New England allowed a continued northwest course, bringing the storm south of Bermuda and later toward the middle coast of the eastern United States. Advanced warning allowed hundreds of people to evacuate ahead of the hurricane making landfall. It did so in northeastern North Carolina on August 23 with winds of about 90 mph (140 km/h). Soon after, the eye crossed over Norfolk, Virginia, the first time that happened since 1821. The hurricane weakened into a tropical storm over northern Virginia shortly before passing near Washington, D.C., becoming the worst tropical cyclone there since 1896. Curving northward, the storm moved through Pennsylvania and New York before losing tropical characteristics on August 25. Now extratropical, the former hurricane moved across Atlantic Canada, dissipating on August 28.
Tropical Storm Danielle was a strong tropical storm that made landfall on Virginia in the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season. The fourth storm of the season, Danielle was one of two tropical cyclones in the year to make landfall in the United States, the other being Hurricane Andrew. It formed out of a stationary trough of low pressure on September 18 near the coast of North Carolina. The system quickly reached tropical storm status, and Danielle looped to the west due to a change in steering currents. Tropical Storm Danielle reached a peak of 65 mph (105 km/h) winds before weakening and hitting the Delmarva Peninsula. The storm quickly dissipated over land.
The 1903 New Jersey hurricane, also known as the Vagabond Hurricane by The Press of Atlantic City, is the first and only known North Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the state of New Jersey since records were kept starting in 1851. The fourth hurricane of the season, the cyclone was first observed on September 12 about 550 miles northeast of Antigua. It moved quickly westward, then later turned to the north-northwest, steadily strengthening to reach a peak intensity of 100 miles per hour, a Category 2 on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane weakened slightly before striking near Atlantic City, New Jersey, on September 16 with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). It weakened over Pennsylvania and became an extratropical cyclone over western New York on September 17.
The 1852 Atlantic hurricane season was one of only three Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status. Five tropical cyclones were reported during the season, which lasted from late August through the middle of October; these dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity, and none of the cyclones coexisted with another. Though there were officially five tropical cyclones in the season, hurricane scholar Michael Chenoweth assessed two of the cyclones as being the same storm. There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season, as meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimated that up to six storms were missed each year from the official database; this estimate was due to small tropical cyclone size, sparse ship reports, and relatively unpopulated coastlines.
The 1898 Georgia hurricane was a major hurricane that hit the U.S. state of Georgia, as well as the strongest on record in the state. It was first observed on September 29, although modern researchers estimated that it developed four days earlier to the east of the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane maintained a general northwest track throughout its duration, and it reached peak winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) on October 2. That day, it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County, Georgia, causing record storm surge flooding. The hurricane caused heavy damage throughout the region, and killed at least 179 people. Impact was most severe in Brunswick, where a 16 ft (4.9 m) storm surge was recorded. Overall damage was estimated at $1.5 million (1898 USD), most of which occurred in Georgia. In extreme northeastern Florida, strong winds nearly destroyed the city of Fernandina, while light crop damage was reported in southern South Carolina. After moving ashore, the hurricane quickly weakened and traversed much of North America; it continued northwestward until reaching the Ohio Valley and turning northeastward, and it was last observed on October 6 near Newfoundland.
The 1850 Atlantic hurricane season was the last season excluded from the scope of the official Atlantic hurricane database. Although meteorological records are sparse and generally incomplete, they indicate that three significant tropical cyclones affected land, each causing some degree of damage. The first system struck North Carolina on July 18, causing significant damage before battering the Mid-Atlantic states with high tides, strong winds, and heavy rainfall. Torrential rainfall caused river flooding from Baltimore to Philadelphia, particularly along the Schuylkill River, which took the lives of 20 people in various incidents. Strong winds damaged property and public facilities in and around New York City, and damaging floods extended into central and northern New England. Crops and railroad infrastructure suffered throughout the entire region.
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