Bluntnose stingray

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Bluntnose stingray
Hypanus say Mandalay Bay Shark Reef Las Vegas.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Superorder: Batoidea
Order: Myliobatiformes
Family: Dasyatidae
Genus: Hypanus
Species:
H. say
Binomial name
Hypanus say
(Lesueur, 1817)
Dasyatis say rangemap.png
Range of the bluntnose stingray
Synonyms
  • Raja sayLesueur, 1817
- ventral (underside) dorsal (topside) - External anatomy of a male bluntnose stingray Dasyatis say njsm (annotated).jpg
← ventral (underside)                     dorsal (topside) →
External anatomy of a male bluntnose stingray

The bluntnose stingray or Say's stingray (Hypanus say, often misspelled sayi) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to the coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Venezuela. It is a bottom-dwelling species that prefers sandy or muddy habitats 1–10 m (3.3–32.8 ft) deep, and is migratory in the northern portion of its range. Typically growing to 78 cm (31 in) across, the bluntnose stingray is characterized by a rhomboid pectoral fin disc with broadly rounded outer corners and an obtuse-angled snout. It has a whip-like tail with both an upper keel and a lower fin fold, and a line of small tubercles along the middle of its back.

Contents

More active at night than during the day when it is usually buried in sediment, the bluntnose stingray is a predator of small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes. This species is aplacental viviparous, in which the unborn young are nourished initially by yolk, and later histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by their mother. Females give birth to 1–6 pups every May after a gestation period of 11–12 months, most of which consists of a period of arrested embryonic development. The venomous tail spine of the bluntnose stingray is potentially dangerous to unwary beachgoers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed this species as near threatened. [1]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur originally described the bluntnose stingray from specimens collected in Little Egg Harbor off the U.S. State of New Jersey. He published his account in an 1819 volume of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and named the new species Raja say in honor of Thomas Say, one of the founding members of the Academy. [2] [3] The species was moved to the genus Dasyatis by subsequent authors. In 1841, German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle erroneously gave the specific epithet as sayi in their Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen, which thereafter became the typical spelling used in literature. [1] [2] Recently, there has been a push to use the correct original spelling again, though it has also been proposed that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) officially emend the spelling to sayi, for consistency with previous usage. [1] [4]

Lisa Rosenberger's 2001 phylogenetic analysis, based on morphological characters, found that the bluntnose stingray is one of the more basal members of its genus, and that it is a sister species to the diamond stingray (H. dipterurus) of the western Pacific Ocean. The two species likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, some three million years ago. [5]

Distribution and habitat

The bluntnose stingray is found in the western Atlantic Ocean, from Long Island, New York southward through the Florida Keys, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles; on rare occasions it is found as far north as Massachusetts, as far south as Venezuela, and as far west as Mexico. It is absent from the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coast of Central America. [1] [6] Reports of this species from off Brazil and Argentina likely represent misidentifications of the groovebelly stingray (D. hypostigma). [1]

Common in coastal habitats such as bays, lagoons, and estuaries, the bluntnose stingray is a bottom-dwelling species usually found at a depth of 1–10 m (3.3–32.8 ft), though it has been recorded from as deep as 20 m (66 ft). It frequents sandy or muddy flats, preferring water with a salinity of 25–43  ppt and a temperature of 12–33 °C (54–91 °F). [1] [7] [8] Adult bluntnose stingrays are seldom found in seagrass meadows or shoals, though the latter serves as a habitat for young rays. Along the U.S. East Coast, schools of bluntnose stingrays migrate long distances northward into bays and estuaries to spend the summer, and move back to southern offshore waters for winter. [9] [10]

Description

The bluntnose stingray is characterized by the shape of its disc and snout. Stingray seaworld.jpg
The bluntnose stingray is characterized by the shape of its disc and snout.

The bluntnose stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc about a sixth wider than long, with broadly rounded outer corners. The leading margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at the tip of the snout at up to a 130° angle; the anterior disc shape distinguishes this species from the similar Atlantic stingray (D. sabina), which has a longer, more acute snout. The mouth is curved, with a central projection on the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw. There is a row of five papillae across the floor of the mouth, with the outermost pair smaller and set apart from the others. There are 36–50 upper tooth rows; the teeth have quadrangular bases and are arranged with a quincunx pattern into flattened surfaces. The tooth crowns are rounded in females and juveniles, while those of males in breeding condition are triangular and pointed. The pelvic fins are triangular with rounded tips. [6] [11]

The whip-like tail measures over one and a half times as long as the disc and bears one or two long, serrated stinging spines on top, about a quarter of the tail length back from the base. [6] [12] The second spine, if present, is a replacement that periodically grows in front of the existing spine. [13] Behind the spine, there are well-developed upper and lower fin folds, with the lower fold longer and wider than the upper. Small thorns or tubercles are found in a midline row from behind the eyes to the base of the tail spine, increasing in number with age. Adults also have prickles before and behind the eyes and on the outer parts of the disc. The dorsal coloration is grayish, reddish, or greenish brown; some individuals also possess bluish spots, are darker towards the sides and rear, or have a thin white disc margin. The ventral surface is whitish, sometimes with a dark disc margin or dark blotches. [6] [7] [11] A record off French Guiana gives the maximum disc width of this species as 1 m (3.3 ft), but that specimen may have been misidentified and other sources give a maximum disc width of no more than 0.78 m (2.6 ft). [10] Females grow larger than males. [7]

Biology and ecology

A female bluntnose stingray with three embryos; this species gives birth to live young. Dasyatis say with embryos nefsc.jpg
A female bluntnose stingray with three embryos; this species gives birth to live young.

The bluntnose stingray has generally nocturnal habits and spends much of the day buried in the substrate. [10] [14] It has been known to follow the rising tide to forage in water barely deep enough to cover its body. [15] This species preys upon small invertebrates, including crustaceans, annelid worms, and bivalve and gastropod molluscs, and bony fishes. [7] It mainly targets benthic and burrowing organisms, but also opportunistically takes free-swimming prey. In Delaware Bay, this species feeds predominantly on the sand shrimp Crangon septemspinosa and the blood worm Glycera dibranchiata , and its overall dietary composition is virtually identical to that of the roughtail stingray (Bathytoshia centroura), with which it shares the bay. [14] The bluntnose stingray is preyed upon by larger fishes such as the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas). [7] Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium brevissime and Kotorella pronosoma, [16] [17] the monogenean Listrocephalos corona, [18] and the trematodes Monocotyle pricei and Multicalyx cristata. [19] [20]

Like other stingrays, the bluntnose stingray is aplacental viviparous. with the embryos initially sustained by yolk. Later in development, finger-like extensions of the uterine epithelium called "trophonemata" surround the embryo and deliver protein and lipid-rich histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. [10] [21] Only the left ovary and uterus in adult females are functional. [22] Mating occurs during a well-defined period from April to June, peaking in May, with the males presumably using their pointed teeth to grasp the females for copulation. [7] [10] However, embryonic development halts at the blastoderm stage, shortly after the formation of the zygote, and does not resume for approximately ten months. In the spring of the following year, the embryos rapidly mature over a period of 10–12 weeks. This period of embryonic diapause may reflect the greater availability of food in the spring. [10] [23]

Including the extended period of diapause, the gestation period lasts around 11–12 months, with 1–6 young being born in mid to late May. [1] [7] [23] In 1941, in a shallow channel between Chincoteague Island and Cape Charles, Virginia, several large bluntnose stingrays were observed repeatedly breaking the surface and swimming rapidly in straight lines, some with their tails thrashing in the air; others were seen rising slowly to the surface and "hanging" for several minutes. One of the rays was hooked and the shock of capture caused it to release five near-term fetuses, suggesting that this activity may have been related to parturition. The aborted young were pale with small yolk sacs, and a swelling in the place of their tail spines. [22] Females begin ovulating a new batch of eggs immediately after giving birth, indicating that they have an annual reproductive cycle. [10] Newborn rays measure 15–17 cm (5.9–6.7 in) across and weigh 170–250 g (6.0–8.8 oz). Males mature sexually at disc width of 30–36 cm (12–14 in) and a weight of 3–6 kg (6.6–13.2 lb), while females mature at a disc width of 50–54 cm (20–21 in) and a weight of 7–15 kg (15–33 lb). [1] [7]

Human interactions

The bluntnose stingray is not aggressive, though it will defend itself if stepped on or otherwise incited. Its tail spine can inflict an excruciating injury, and can easily pierce leather or rubber footwear. [3] [7] The paralytic venom delivered may have potentially life-threatening effects on those with heart or respiratory problems, and is the subject of biomedical and neurobiological research. [24] This species is popular with ecotourist divers. [7] Abundant and widespread, the bluntnose stingray is caught incidentally by commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries operating in nearshore U.S. waters; these activities are not a threat to its population, as most captured rays are released alive. The impact of fishing in the southern parts of its range is uncertain, but is unlikely to significantly affect the species as a whole as these activities occur outside its centers of distribution. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed the bluntnose stingray as near threatened. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short-tail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The short-tail stingray or smooth stingray is a common species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It occurs off southern Africa, typically offshore at a depth of 180–480 m (590–1,570 ft), and off southern Australia and New Zealand, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 156 m (512 ft). It is mostly bottom-dwelling in nature and can be found across a range of habitats from estuaries to reefs, but also frequently will swim into open water. One of the largest stingrays in the world, this heavy-bodied species can grow upwards of 2.1 m (6.9 ft) across and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Its plain-colored, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc is characterized by a lack of dermal denticles even in adults, and white pores beside the head on either side. The body can have colors as well as dark grey or black with rows of white spots along each wing. Its tail is usually shorter than the disc and thick at the base. It is armed with large tubercles and a midline row of large thorns in front of the stinging spine which has the dorsal and ventral fin folds behind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longtail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The longtail stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Baja California to Colombia. It inhabits sandy habitats down to a depth of 90 m (300 ft). Measuring up to 1.56 m (5.1 ft) across, this species has a rhomboid pectoral fin disc, a lower fin fold on the tail, and numerous dermal denticles along the back and behind the stinging spine. The longtail stingray feeds mainly on bottom-dwelling bony fishes and crustaceans. It is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to 1–5 young in late summer. It is caught for food, likely throughout its range, but specific fishery data is lacking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Atlantic stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, common along the Atlantic coast of North America from Chesapeake Bay to Mexico, including brackish and freshwater habitats. It may be distinguished from other stingrays in the area by its relatively elongated snout. This species is of little commercial importance, other than for sale in the aquarium industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern stingray</span> Species of fish

The southern stingray is a whiptail stingray found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey to southern Brazil. It has a flat, diamond-shaped disc, with a mud brown, olive, and grey dorsal surface and white underbelly. The barb on its tail is serrated and covered in a venomous mucus, used for self-defense.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelagic stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The pelagic stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, and the sole member of its genus. It is characterized by the wedge-like shape of its pectoral fin disc, which is much wider than long, as well as by the pointed teeth in both sexes, whip-like tail with extremely long tail spine, and uniform violet to blue-green coloration. It generally reaches 59 cm (23 in) in width. The pelagic stingray has a worldwide distribution in waters warmer than 19 °C (66 °F), and migrates seasonally to spend the summer closer to the continental shelf and at higher latitudes. The only stingray that almost exclusively inhabits the open ocean, this species is typically found in surface waters down to a depth of 100 m (330 ft). As a consequence of its midwater habits, its swimming style has evolved to feature more of a flapping motion of the pectoral fins, as opposed to the disc margin undulations used by other, bottom-dwelling stingrays.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The red stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the northwestern Pacific Ocean off Japan, Korea, and China, and possibly elsewhere. It primarily inhabits shallow, sandy habitats close to shore, and has been known to enter brackish water. The red stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and gains its common name from its bright orange-red underside; there may also be patches of orange at various spots on its upper surface. Most individuals are no more than 1 m (3.3 ft) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diamond stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The diamond stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It is found in the coastal waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile, and around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands. This bottom-dweller generally inhabits sandy or muddy flats near rocky reefs and kelp forests, to a depth of 30 m (98 ft), though off Hawaii it may range considerably deeper. As its common name suggests, this species has an angular, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc that is plain brown or gray above, with rows of tubercles along the midline and on the "shoulders". The long, whip-like tail has both dorsal and ventral fin folds, which distinguish this ray from the closely similar longtail stingray. It typically grows to 1 m (3.3 ft) across.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estuary stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The estuary stingray, also called the estuary stingaree or brown stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Endemic to eastern Australia, it typically inhabits shallow, mangrove-lined tidal rivers, estuaries, and bays in southern Queensland and New South Wales. This yellow-brown to olive ray grows to at least 93 cm (37 in) across. It has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a mostly smooth, whip-like tail bearing both dorsal and ventral fin folds. It can additionally be identified by its long, narrow nostrils and the row of thorns along the midline of its back.

The Niger stingray or smooth freshwater stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to rivers in Nigeria and Cameroon. Attaining a width of 40 cm (16 in), this species can be distinguished by its thin, almost circular pectoral fin disk, slightly projecting snout tip, and mostly smooth skin with small or absent dermal denticles. The Niger stingray feeds on aquatic insect larvae and is ovoviviparous. The long stinging spine on the tail of this ray can inflict a painful wound. It has been assessed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as its numbers are declining in some areas and it faces heavy fishing pressure and habitat degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sharpsnout stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The sharpsnout stingray or wingfin stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found from off Venezuela to northern Brazil. It inhabits shallow, brackish water, shifting towards the coast in the dry season and away from it in the rainy season. Typically measuring 70 cm (28 in) across, this dark brown ray is easily identifiable by its long, projecting snout and elongated, acutely pointed pelvic fins. Its diet consists of bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females bearing one to three pups annually. Naturally uncommon and slow-reproducing, the sharpnose stingray is under pressure by both artisanal and commercial fisheries, leading the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to assess it as critically endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longnose stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The longnose stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to the western Atlantic Ocean from the southern Gulf of Mexico to Brazil. Found in coastal waters no deeper than 36 m (118 ft), this demersal species favors muddy or sandy habitats. The longnose stingray is characterized by its angular, rhomboid pectoral fin disc, moderately projecting snout, and whip-like tail with a dorsal keel and ventral fin fold. It typically grows to 1.25 m (4.1 ft) across and is brownish above and light-colored below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mekong freshwater stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Mekong freshwater stingray, Hemitrygon laosensis, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, restricted to the Mekong and Chao Phraya Rivers in Laos and Thailand; the occurrence in Chao Phraya is considered an introduction. Measuring up to 62 cm (24 in) across, this ray has an oval pectoral fin disc, a tail with both upper and lower fin folds, and a midline row of spine-like dermal denticles. A characteristic feature of this species is its bright orange underside. The Mekong freshwater stingray preys on invertebrates and is aplacental viviparous. It has been assessed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as it is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation.

The Brazilian large-eyed stingray, Hypanus marianae, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Endemic to northeastern Brazil, adults of this species inhabit shallow coral and sandstone reefs while the young are also found near beaches and in estuaries. This stingray measures up to 40 cm (16 in) across and can be identified by its large eyes, equally long fin folds above and below the tail, and distinctive coloration consisting of various dark brown markings on a yellowish-brown background above, and two pairs of dark brown blotches on a white background below. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to one young at a time, twice a year, and using sandbanks as nursery areas. The Brazilian large-eyed stingray is collected by artisanal fisheries and for the ornamental fish trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pale-edged stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The pale-edged stingray or sharpnose stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans from India to the western Malay Archipelago and southern Japan. This bottom-dwelling ray is most commonly found over sandy areas shallower than 100 m (330 ft), as well as in estuaries. Measuring up to 29 cm (11 in) across, the pale-edged stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc, a long projecting snout, small eyes, and a whip-like tail with both dorsal and ventral fin folds. It is chocolate brown above and white below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow stingray</span> Species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae

The yellow stingray is a species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae, found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to Trinidad. This bottom-dwelling species inhabits sandy, muddy, or seagrass bottoms in shallow inshore waters, commonly near coral reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broad stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The broad stingray, also known as the brown stingray or Hawaiian stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. They range across the Indo-Pacific from southern Africa to Hawaii, and are the predominant species of stingray in the inshore waters of the Hawaiian Islands. This benthic fish also inhabits sandy or muddy flats at depths greater than 15 m (49 ft) in the Eastern Atlantic, from southern France to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea. Usually growing to 1 m (3 ft) across, the broad stingray has a wide, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc with a protruding snout tip and a long tail with a ventral fin fold. At night, this species actively forages for bottom-dwelling invertebrates and bony fishes, often near the boundaries of reefs. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous. As substantial threats to its population exist in many areas of its wide distribution, IUCN has listed this species as Vulnerable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The common stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It typically inhabits sandy or muddy habitats in coastal waters shallower than 60 m (200 ft), often burying itself in sediment. Usually measuring 45 cm (18 in) across, the common stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc slightly wider than long, and a whip-like tail with upper and lower fin folds. It can be identified by its plain coloration and mostly smooth skin, except for a row of tubercles along the midline of the back in the largest individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roughtail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The roughtail stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, with separate populations in coastal waters of the northwestern and southwestern Atlantic Ocean. This bottom-dwelling species typically inhabits sandy or muddy areas with patches of invertebrate cover, at a depth of 15–50 m (49–164 ft). It is seasonally migratory, overwintering in offshore waters and moving into coastal habitats for summer. The largest whip-tail stingray in the Atlantic, the roughtail stingray grows up to 2.6 m (8.5 ft) across and 360 kg (800 lb) in weight. It is plain in color, with an angular, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a long, whip-like tail bearing a subtle fin fold underneath. The many thorns on its back and tail serve to distinguish it from other stingrays that share its range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smalleye stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The smalleye stingray is a large species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, measuring up to 2.2 m (7.2 ft) across. Rare but widely distributed, it is found in the Indo-Pacific from Mozambique to India to northern Australia. This species may be semi-pelagic in nature, inhabiting both deeper waters and shallow coastal reefs and estuaries. It is characterized by a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc much wider than long, a tail that is broad and flattened in front of the spine but whip-like behind, and large white spots over its back.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pearl stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The pearl stingray is a little-known species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in shallow coastal waters from Mauritania to Angola, though fossils have been found in Portugal. Growing to 30 cm (12 in) across, this species has a rounded pectoral fin disc with a pointed snout, and a wide band of dermal denticles over the back in adults. It closely resembles and is often confused for the much larger daisy stingray ; both species are characterized by the presence of an enlarged, nacreous denticle in the middle of the back called a "pearl spine". The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assesses the pearl stingray's conservation status as Near Threatened, but it is likely that most of the historically reported fishery catches of the daisy stingray were in fact of this species.

References

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  11. 1 2 Bean, T.H. (1903). Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. University of the State of New York. pp.  55–56.
  12. ↑ McClane, A.J. (1978). McClane's Field Guide to Saltwater Fishes of North America. Macmillan. pp. 40–41. ISBN   0-8050-0733-4.
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  14. 1 2 Hess, P.W. (June 19, 1961). "Food Habits of Two Dasyatid Rays in Delaware Bay". Copeia. 1961 (2): 239–241. doi:10.2307/1440016. JSTOR   1440016.
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  17. ↑ Palm, H.W.; A. Waeschenbach & D.T.J. Littlewood (June 2007). "Genetic diversity in the trypanorhynch cestode Tentacularia coryphaenae Bosc, 1797: evidence for a cosmopolitan distribution and low host specificity in the teleost intermediate host" (PDF). Parasitology Research. 101 (1): 153–159. doi:10.1007/s00436-006-0435-1. PMID   17216487. S2CID   6465813. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-14.
  18. ↑ Bullard, S.A.; R.R. Payne & J.S. Braswell (December 2004). "New genus with two new species of capsalid monogeneans from dasyatids in the Gulf of California" (PDF). Journal of Parasitology. 90 (6): 1412–1427. doi:10.1645/GE-304R. PMID   15715238. S2CID   37124160. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-21.
  19. ↑ Hargis W.J. (Jr.) (1955). "Monogenetic trematodes of Gulf of Mexico fishes. Part IV. The superfamily Capsaloidea Price, 1936". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 74 (3): 203–225. doi:10.2307/3224093. JSTOR   3224093.
  20. ↑ Hendrix, S.S. & R.M. Overstreet (October 1977). "Marine Aspidogastrids (Trematoda) from Fishes in the Northern Gulf of Mexico". The Journal of Parasitology. 63 (5): 810–817. doi:10.2307/3279883. JSTOR   3279883. PMID   915610.
  21. ↑ Wourms, J.P. (1981). "Viviparity: The maternal-fetal relationship in fishes". American Zoologist. 21 (2): 473–515. doi: 10.1093/icb/21.2.473 .
  22. 1 2 Hamilton W.J. (Jr.) & R.A. Smith (September 30, 1941). "Notes on the Sting-Ray, Dasyatis say (Le Sueur)". Copeia. 1941 (3): 175. doi:10.2307/1437744. JSTOR   1437744.
  23. 1 2 Morris, J.A., J. Wyffels, F.F. Snelson (Jr.) (1999). "Confirmation of embryonic diapause in the bluntnose stingray Dasyatis say". Abstract from the American Elasmobranch Society 1999 Annual Meeting, State College, Pennsylvania.
  24. ↑ Farren, R. (2003). Highroad Guide to Florida Keys and the Everglades. John F. Blair. p. 266. ISBN   0-89587-280-3.

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