Cladosporium cladosporioides | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Dothideomycetes |
Order: | Capnodiales |
Family: | Davidiellaceae |
Genus: | Cladosporium |
Species: | C. cladosporioides |
Binomial name | |
Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) G.A.de Vries (1952) | |
Synonyms | |
Cladosporium cladosporioides is a darkly pigmented mold that occurs world-wide on a wide range of materials both outdoors and indoors. It is one of the most common fungi in outdoor air where its spores are important in seasonal allergic disease. While this species rarely causes invasive disease in animals, it is an important agent of plant disease, attacking both the leaves and fruits of many plants. This species produces asexual spores in delicate, branched chains that break apart readily and drift in the air. It is able to grow under low water conditions and at very low temperatures.
Georg Fresenius first described Cladosporium cladosporioides in 1850, classifying it in the genus Penicillium as Penicillium cladosporioides. [1] [2] In 1880 Pier Andrea Saccardo renamed the species, Hormodendrum cladosporioides. [1] [2] Other early names for this taxon included Cladosporium hypophyllum, Monilia humicola and Cladosporium pisicola. [1] [2] In 1952 that Gerardus Albertus de Vries transferred the species to the genus Cladosporium where it remains today. [1] [2]
Cladosporium cladosporioides reproduces asexually and because no teleomorph has been identified, it is considered an exclusively anamorphic species. [3] Colonies are olive-green to olive-brown and appear velvety or powdery. [4] On a potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium, colonies are olive-grey to dull green, velvety and tufted. [5] The edges of the colony can be olive-grey to white, and feathery. [5] The colonies are diffuse and the mycelia form mats and rarely grow upwards from the surface of the colony. [5] On a malt extract agar (MEA) medium, colonies are olive-grey to olive or whitish due to the mycelia growing upwards, and seem velvety to tufted with olive-black or olive-brown edges. The mycelia can be diffuse to tufted and sometimes covers the whole colony. [5] The mycelia appear felt-like, grows flat, and can be effused and furrowed. [5] On oatmeal agar (OA) medium, colonies are olive-grey and there can be a gradient toward the edges of the colony from olive green to dull green, then olive-grey. [5] The upward growth of mycelia can be sparse to abundant and tufted. [5] The mycelia and can be loose to dense and tends to grow flat. [5] Cladosporium cladosporioides has sparse, unbranched or rarely branched, darkly-pigmented hyphae that are typically not constricted at the septa. [5] Mature conidiophores are treelike and comprise many long, branched chains of conidia. [6] [7] Cladosporium cladosporioides produces brown to olive-brown coloured, solitary conidiophores that branch irregularly, forming many ramifications. [6] [7] Each branch tends to be between 40–300 µm in length (exceptionally up to 350 µm) and 2–6 µm in width. [5] [6] The conidiophores are thin-walled and cylindrical and are formed at the end of ascending hyphae. [8] The conidia are small, single-celled, lemon-shaped and smooth-walled. [4] [6] They form long, fragile chains up to 10 conidia in length with distinctive darkened connective tissue between each spore. [4] [6]
Cladosporium cladosporioides produces antifungal metabolites targeted toward plant pathogens. [9] Three different compounds isolated from C. cladosporioides (cladosporin, isocladosporin and 5′-hydroxyasperentin), as well as a compound (5′,6-diacetyl cladosporin) synthesized from 5′-hydroxyasperentin have antifungal properties. As these compounds are effective against different types of fungi, C. cladosporioides is an important species for potential treatment and control of various plant-infecting fungi. [9] The inoculation of Venturia inaequalis , a fungus that causes apple scab on apple tree leaves, with C. cladosporioides led to decreased conidial production in V. inaequalis. [10] As this effect is seen both on younger and older leaves C. cladosporioides is effective in preventing and controlling infections of V. inaequalis in apple trees. [10] This species also produces calphostins A, B, C, D and I, which are protein kinase C inhibitors. [11] [12] These calphostins have cytotoxic activity due to their ability to inhibit protein kinase C activity. [11] [12]
Cladosporium cladosporioides is a common saprotroph occurring as a secondary infection on decaying, or necrotic, parts of plants. [5] This fungus is xerophilic – growing well in low water activity environments (e.g., aW = 0.86–0.88). [13] This species is also psychrophilic, it can grow at temperatures between −10 and −3 °C (14 and 27 °F). [14] Cladosporium cladosporioides occurs outdoor environments year-round with peak spore concentration in the air occurring in summer where levels can range from 2,000 spores up to 50,000 spores per cubic meter of air. [15] It is among the most common of all outdoor airborne fungi, [15] colonizing plant materials and soil. [13] It has been found in a number of crops, such as wheat, [5] grapes, [16] strawberries, [17] peas [5] and spinach. [5] This species also grows in indoor environments, [13] where it is often associated with the growth of fungi including species of Penicillium , Aspergillus versicolor and Wallemia sebi . [15] Cladosporium cladosporioides grows well on wet building materials, paint, wallpaper and textiles, [15] as well as on paper, pulp, frescos, tiles, wet window sills and other indoor substrates [14] including salty and sugary foods. [13] Due to its tolerance of lower temperatures, C. cladosporioides can grow on refrigerated foods and colonize moist surfaces in refrigerators. [14]
Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. herbarum cause Cladosporium rot of red wine grapevines. [16] [18] The incidence of infection is much higher when the harvest of the grapes is delayed. Over 50% of grape clusters can be affected at harvest, which greatly reduced the yield and affects the wine quality. [18] [19] This delay is required in order for the phenolic compounds in the grapes to ripen and contribute to the aroma and flavour development in wine of optimum quality. [18] Symptoms of Cladosporium rot are typically observed on mature grapes and are characterized by dehydration, a small area of decay that is firm, and a layer of olive-green mould. [19] Although leaf removal reduces the incidence of infection by many species of fungi, [20] it leads to an increase in C. cladosporioides populations on grape clusters and an increase in rotten grapes at harvest. [16] Removal of diseased leaves is therefore counter-indicated in the control of this fungus. [16] The only recommendation made to avoid severe Cladosporium infections of grape clusters is to limit periods of continuous exposure to sunlight. [16]
This species has also been involved in the rotting of strawberry blossoms. [17] [21] [22] Infection of strawberry blossoms by C. cladosporioides has been associated with simultaneous infections by Xanthomonas fragariae (in California), [17] [22] and more recently C. tenuissimum (in Korea). [21] C. cladosporioides infects the anthers, sepals, petals and pistils of the strawberry blossom [17] [22] and is typically observed on older flowers with dehisced anthers and signs of senescence. [23] From 1997-2000, there was a higher proportion of misshapen fruits due to C. cladosporioides infection, and their culling affected the strawberry industry in California. [23] Infection leads to necrosis of the entire flower, or parts of it, as well as to the production of small and misshapen fruits and green-grey sporulation on the stigma. [17] [21] [22] A higher occurrence of infection is observed in strawberry plants cultivated outdoors than cultivated in a greenhouse. [21]
Cladosporium cladosporioides rarely causes infections in humans, although superficial infections have been reported. [4] [24] It can occasionally cause pulmonary [25] and cutaneous [26] phaeohyphomycosis [4] [27] and it has been isolated from cerebrospinal fluid in an immunocompromised patient. [24] This species can trigger asthmatic reactions due to the presence of allergens and beta-glucans on its spore surface. [28] In mice, living C. cladosporioides spores have induced hyperresponsiveness of the lungs, as well as an increase in eosinophils, which are white blood cells typically associated with asthmatic and allergic reactions. [28] Cladosporium cladosporioides can also induce respiratory inflammation due to the up-regulation of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 and keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC), which are cytokines involved in the mediation of inflammation. [29] A case of mycotic encephalitis and nephritis due to C. cladosporioides has been described in a dog, resulting in altered behaviour, depression, abnormal reflexes in all 4 limbs and loss of vision. [30] Post-mortem examination indicated posterior brainstem and cerebellar lesions, confirming the causative involvement of the agent. [30]
Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or "gray mold".
Apple scab is a common disease of plants in the rose family (Rosaceae) that is caused by the ascomycete fungus Venturia inaequalis. While this disease affects several plant genera, including Sorbus, Cotoneaster, and Pyrus, it is most commonly associated with the infection of Malus trees, including species of flowering crabapple, as well as cultivated apple. The first symptoms of this disease are found in the foliage, blossoms, and developing fruits of affected trees, which develop dark, irregularly-shaped lesions upon infection. Although apple scab rarely kills its host, infection typically leads to fruit deformation and premature leaf and fruit drop, which enhance the susceptibility of the host plant to abiotic stress and secondary infection. The reduction of fruit quality and yield may result in crop losses of up to 70%, posing a significant threat to the profitability of apple producers. To reduce scab-related yield losses, growers often combine preventive practices, including sanitation and resistance breeding, with reactive measures, such as targeted fungicide or biocontrol treatments, to prevent the incidence and spread of apple scab in their crops.
Cladosporium is a genus of fungi including some of the most common indoor and outdoor molds. Some species are endophytes or plant pathogens, while others parasitize fungi.
Microfungi or micromycetes are fungi—eukaryotic organisms such as molds, mildews and rusts—which have microscopic spore-producing structures. They exhibit tube tip-growth and have cell walls composed of chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. Microfungi are a paraphyletic group, distinguished from macrofungi only by the absence of a large, multicellular fruiting body. They are ubiquitous in all terrestrial and freshwater and marine environments, and grow in plants, soil, water, insects, cattle rumens, hair, and skin. Most of the fungal body consists of microscopic threads, called hyphae, extending through the substrate in which it grows. The mycelia of microfungi produce spores that are carried by the air, spreading the fungus.
Armillaria luteobubalina, commonly known as the Australian honey fungus, is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae. Widely distributed in southern Australia, the fungus is responsible for a disease known as Armillaria root rot, a primary cause of Eucalyptus tree death and forest dieback. It is the most pathogenic and widespread of the six Armillaria species found in Australia. The fungus has also been collected in Argentina and Chile. Fruit bodies have cream- to tan-coloured caps that grow up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and stems that measure up to 20 cm (8 in) long by 1.5 cm (1 in) thick. The fruit bodies, which appear at the base of infected trees and other woody plants in autumn (March–April), are edible, but require cooking to remove the bitter taste. The fungus is dispersed through spores produced on gills on the underside of the caps, and also by growing vegetatively through the root systems of host trees. The ability of the fungus to spread vegetatively is facilitated by an aerating system that allows it to efficiently diffuse oxygen through rhizomorphs—rootlike structures made of dense masses of hyphae.
Armillaria tabescens is a species of fungus in the family Physalacriaceae. It is a plant pathogen. The mycelium of the fungus is bioluminescent.
Pythium ultimum is a plant pathogen. It causes damping off and root rot diseases of hundreds of diverse plant hosts including corn, soybean, potato, wheat, fir, and many ornamental species. P. ultimum belongs to the peronosporalean lineage of oomycetes, along with other important plant pathogens such as Phytophthora spp. and many genera of downy mildews. P. ultimum is a frequent inhabitant of fields, freshwater ponds, and decomposing vegetation in most areas of the world. Contributing to the widespread distribution and persistence of P. ultimum is its ability to grow saprotrophically in soil and plant residue. This trait is also exhibited by most Pythium spp. but not by the related Phytophthora spp., which can only colonize living plant hosts.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a plant pathogen with a very wide host range. It causes rotting and dieback in most species it infects. It is a common post harvest fungus disease of citrus known as stem-end rot. It is a cause of bot canker of grapevine. It also infects Biancaea sappan, a species of flowering tree also known as Sappanwood.
Ceratobasidium cornigerum is a species of fungus in the order Cantharellales. Basidiocarps are thin, spread on the substrate out like a film (effused) and web-like. An anamorphic state is frequently obtained when isolates are cultured. Ceratobasidium cornigerum is saprotrophic, but is also a facultative plant pathogen, causing a number of economically important crop diseases, and an orchid endomycorrhizal associate. The species is genetically diverse and is sometimes treated as a complex of closely related taxa. DNA research shows the species actually belongs within the genus Rhizoctonia.
Phytophthora fragariae is a fungus-like (oomycete) plant pathogen that causes red stele, otherwise known as Lanarkshire disease, in strawberries. Symptoms of red stele can include a red core in the roots, wilting of leaves, reduced flowering, stunting, and bitter fruit. The pathogen is spread via zoospores swimming through water present in the soil, released from sporangia.
Glomerella cingulata is a fungal plant pathogen, being the name of the sexual stage (teleomorph) while the more commonly referred to asexual stage (anamorph) is called Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. For most of this article the pathogen will be referred to as C. gloeosporioides. This pathogen is a significant problem worldwide, causing anthracnose and fruit rotting diseases on hundreds of economically important hosts.
Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.
Cladophialophora bantiana is a melanin producing mold known to cause brain abscesses in humans. It is one of the most common causes of systemic phaeohyphomycosis in mammals. Cladophialophora bantiana is a member of the ascomycota and has been isolated from soil samples from around the world.
Common spot of strawberry is one of the most common and widespread diseases afflicting the strawberry. Common spot of strawberry is caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella fragariae. Symptoms of this disease first appear as circular, dark purple spots on the leaf surface. Mycosphaerella fragariae is very host-specific and only infects strawberry.
Chaetomium globosum is a well-known mesophilic member of the mold family Chaetomiaceae. It is a saprophytic fungus that primarily resides on plants, soil, straw, and dung. Endophytic C. globosum assists in cellulose decomposition of plant cells. They are found in habitats ranging from forest plants to mountain soils across various biomes. C. globosum colonies can also be found indoors and on wooden products.
Trichothecium roseum is a fungus in the division Ascomycota first reported in 1809. It is characterized by its flat and granular colonies which are initially white and develop to be light pink in color. This fungus reproduces asexually through the formation of conidia with no known sexual state. Trichothecium roseum is distinctive from other species of the genus Trichothecium in its characteristic zigzag patterned chained conidia. It is found in various countries worldwide and can grow in a variety of habitats ranging from leaf litter to fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites including mycotoxins, such as roseotoxins and trichothecenes, which can infect and spoil a variety of fruit crops. It can act as both a secondary and opportunistic pathogen by causing pink rot on various fruits and vegetables and thus has an economical impact on the farming industry. Secondary metabolites of T. roseum, specifically Trichothecinol A, are being investigated as potential anti-metastatic drugs. Several agents including harpin, silicon oxide, and sodium silicate are potential inhibitors of T. roseum growth on fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum is mainly a plant pathogen and has yet to show a significant impact on human health.
Cladosporium sphaerospermum is a radiotrophic fungus belonging to the genus Cladosporium and was described in 1886 by Albert Julius Otto Penzig from the decaying leaves and branches of Citrus. It is a dematiaceous (darkly-pigmented) fungus characterized by slow growth and largely asexual reproduction. Cladosporium sphaerospermum consists of a complex of poorly morphologically differentiated, "cryptic" species that share many physiological and ecological attributes. In older literature, all of these sibling species were classified as C. sphaerospermum despite their unique nature. Accordingly, there is confusion in older literature reports on the physiological and habitat regularities of C. sphaerospermum in the strict sense. This fungus is most phylogenetically similar to C. fusiforme. According to modern phylogenetic analyses, the previously synonymized species, Cladosporium langeroni, is a distinct species.
Cladosporium oxysporum is an airborne fungus that is commonly found outdoors and is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical region, it is mostly located In Asia and Africa. It spreads through airborne spores and is often extremely abundant in outdoor air during the spring and summer seasons. It mainly feeds on decomposing organic matter in warmer climates, but can also be parasitic and feed on living plants. The airborne spores can occasionally cause cutaneous infections in humans, and the high prevalence of C. oxysporum in outdoor air during warm seasons contributes to its importance as an etiological agent of allergic disease and possibly human cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in tropical regions.
Curvularia inaequalis is a plant saprobe that resides in temperate and subtropical environments. It is commonly found in the soils of forage grasses and grains. The species has been observed in a broad distribution of countries including Turkey, France, Canada, The United States, Japan and India. This species is dematiaceous and a hyphomycete.
Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.
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