Diving bell spider

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Diving bell spider
Temporal range: Neogene–present
Argyroneta aquatica Paar.jpg
Female (on left) and male
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Dictynidae
Genus: Argyroneta
Latreille, 1804
Species:
A. aquatica
Binomial name
Argyroneta aquatica
(Clerck, 1758)
Synonyms [1]
  • Aranea amphibiaMüller, 1776 [2]
  • Aranea aquaticaLinnaeus, 1758 [3]
  • Araneus aquaticusClerck, 1757 [4]
  • Aranea urinatoriaPoda, 1761 [5]
  • Clubiona fallaxWalckenaer, 1837 [6]

The diving bell spider or water spider (Argyroneta aquatica) is the only species of spider known to live almost entirely under water. It is the only member of the genus Argyroneta. [1] When out of the water, the spider ranges in colour from mid to dark brown, although the hairs on the abdomen give it a dark grey, velvet-like appearance. [7] It is native to freshwater habitats in Europe and Asia. [1] [8]

Contents

Uniqueness of aquatic behavior

Although prey is usually consumed underwater in the diving bell, it is occasionally brought to the surface. Argyroneta Aquatica.jpg
Although prey is usually consumed underwater in the diving bell, it is occasionally brought to the surface.

A. aquatica is the only known species of spider that spends almost all its life underwater, including resting, catching and eating prey, mating, egg laying, and overwintering. It only briefly surfaces to replenish its oxygen supply and occasionally will bring prey to the surface. [9] [10] [11] [12]

Several other spiders are semiaquatic, either periodically living underwater or willing to dive. [13] For example, certain Desis species spend the high tide in an air-filled underwater retreat made from silk and forage on land in the intertidal zone during low tide. [10] [14] [15] Some spiders living in periodically flooded habitats can survive for an extended period underwater by entering a coma-like state, up to 16–36 hours in Arctosa fulvolineata . [16] Numerous species, including some Ancylometes , Dolomedes , Megadolomedes , Pardosa , Pirata , Thalassius and others, live above water at the surface, but may actively submerge for a prolonged period, are strong swimmers and will catch underwater prey. [9] [10] [17] Several of these, as well as a few others, may dive into the water to avoid larger predators. [9] [18]

Distribution and habitat

A. aquatica is found in clean freshwater habitats with aquatic vegetation, such as lakes, ponds, canals, marshes and slow-moving streams. [11] [19] It ranges through much of mainland Europe (no records from Portugal, Greece and Albania), the British Isles and central to northern Asia ranging as far south as Iran and as far north as Siberia, up to latitude 62°N. [8] [20] Most of the range is inhabited by the nominate subspecies, but Japan has its own subspecies, the very similar A. a. japonica . [7] [21]

Habitat at Yeoncheon Eundaeri Water Spider Habitat yeonceon eundaeri mulgeomi seosigji jeongyeong (1).jpg
Habitat at Yeoncheon Eundaeri Water Spider Habitat

South Korea has a protected area, Yeoncheon Eundaeri water spider habitat, [22] [23] for this endangered species in that country. [24]

Ecology

As with other spiders it breathes air; when submerged in water, an air bubble is trapped by a dense layer of hydrophobic hairs on its abdomen and legs, [8] giving the abdomen a silvery appearance. The spider lives for about two years in captivity. [8]

A. aquatica is able to remain submerged for prolonged periods of time due to the silk-based structure it constructs in order to retain an oxygen supply, named after the diving bell structure it resembles. The species range in size, although the size of females may be limited as they put more energy into building and maintaining their larger bells. [8] Males are more active and on average almost 30% larger than females, [8] measuring 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in) in head-and-body length compared to 8–12 mm (0.31–0.47 in). [7] This size differential favoring males is unusual for spiders, where sexual dimorphism is usually in favour of larger females. Theories suggest that the male's more active hunting style requires greater strength to overcome water resistance and counteract the buoyancy of their mobile air supplies. This larger body size is also associated with longer front legs, shown to affect diving ability and giving the males superiority in diving over the more sessile females. In addition, females build larger air bells than males, as the bell is also used to care for the offspring, forcing them to collect air from the surface much more frequently. And the larger the body, the more air is trapped on their abdomen, which means more buoyancy to overcome. Larger females therefore have higher energy costs than males of the same size and smaller females, which could limit the number of offspring they are able to produce. [8]

The spiders prey on aquatic insects and crustaceans such as mosquito larvae and Daphnia . [25] The spiders themselves fall prey to frogs and fish. [26]

Diving bell

The appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name Argyroneta, from the Greek "argyros" (ἄργυρος), meaning "silver", and "neta", a neologism (perhaps for *νητής) derived from the verb "neo" (νέω) "spin", intended to mean "spinner of silver". [27] Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey, although only the female's larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring. Females spend most of their time within their bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web. The bells built by males are typically smaller than females' and are replenished less often. It is thought that prior to mating, the male constructs a diving bell adjacent to the female's then spins a tunnel from his bell, breaking into hers to gain entrance. [26] Mating takes place in the female's bell. [28] The female spider then constructs an egg sac within her bell, laying between 30 and 70 eggs. [26] Where this species moults is less clear, with some sources stating that it occurs below water in the diving bell [12] and others that it occurs out of water. [11]

Diving bells are irregularly constructed sheets of silk and an unknown protein-based hydrogel [29] which is spun between submerged water plants then inflated with air brought down from the surface by the builder. Studies have considered gas diffusion between the diving bell and the spiders' aquatic environment. The silk is waterproof but allows gas exchange with the surrounding water. There is net diffusion of oxygen into the bell and net diffusion of carbon dioxide out. This process is driven by differences in partial pressure. The production of carbon dioxide and use of oxygen by the spider maintains the concentration gradient, required for diffusion. However, there is net diffusion of nitrogen out of the bell, resulting in a gradually shrinking air bubble which must be regularly replenished by the spider. [25]

Larger spiders are able to produce larger bubbles which have a consequently higher oxygen conductance, but all spiders of this species are able to enlarge their bells in response to increased oxygen demands in low aquatic P(O2) environments. These spiders voluntarily tolerate internal conditions of low oxygen, enlarging their bells with air when the P(O2) drops below 1 kPa; this replenishment process may not need to occur for several days, in some cases. [25] This system has been referred to as "the water spider's aqua-lung of air bubbles", though an aqua-lung lacks gas exchange with the surroundings; [30] this system is more properly regarded as an inorganic form of gill.

Bite

Their bite is often described as being very painful to humans and as causing localised inflammation, vomiting, and slight feverishness that disappears after 5–10 days. [31] [32] However, solid evidence is lacking, [33] with information being based on old and unverified reports because recent confirmed and published reports are lacking, [20] [34] leading some sources to refer to its bite as reputedly painful. [7]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gill</span> Respiratory organ used by aquatic organisms

A gill is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist. The microscopic structure of a gill presents a large surface area to the external environment. Branchia is the zoologists' name for gills.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic respiration</span> Process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water

Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic organism exchanges respiratory gases with water, obtaining oxygen from oxygen dissolved in water and excreting carbon dioxide and some other metabolic waste products into the water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic insect</span> Insect that lives in water

Aquatic insects or water insects live some portion of their life cycle in the water. They feed in the same ways as other insects. Some diving insects, such as predatory diving beetles, can hunt for food underwater where land-living insects cannot compete.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diving bell</span> Chamber for transporting divers vertically through the water

A diving bell is a rigid chamber used to transport divers from the surface to depth and back in open water, usually for the purpose of performing underwater work. The most common types are the open-bottomed wet bell and the closed bell, which can maintain an internal pressure greater than the external ambient. Diving bells are usually suspended by a cable, and lifted and lowered by a winch from a surface support platform. Unlike a submersible, the diving bell is not designed to move under the control of its occupants, or to operate independently of its launch and recovery system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrophilidae</span> Family of beetles

Hydrophilidae, also known colloquially as water scavenger beetles, is a family of beetles. Aquatic hydrophilids are notable for their long maxillary palps, which are longer than their antennae. Several of the former subfamilies of Hydrophilidae have recently been removed and elevated to family rank; Epimetopidae, Georissidae, Helophoridae, Hydrochidae, and Spercheidae. While the majority of hydrophilids are aquatic, around a third of described species are terrestrial, mostly belonging to the subfamily Sphaeridiinae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American water shrew</span> Species of mammal

The American water shrew or northern water shrew is a shrew found in the nearctic faunal region located throughout the mountain ranges of the northern United States and in Canada and Alaska. The organism resides in semi-aquatic habitats, and is known for being the smallest mammalian diver.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurasian water shrew</span> Species of mammal

The Eurasian water shrew, known in the United Kingdom as the water shrew, is a relatively large shrew, up to 10 cm (4 in) long, with a tail up to three-quarters as long again. It has short, dark fur, often with a few white tufts, a white belly, and a few stiff hairs around the feet and tail. It lives close to fresh water, hunting aquatic prey in the water and nearby. Its fur traps bubbles of air in the water which greatly aids its buoyancy, but requires it to anchor itself to remain underwater for more than the briefest of dives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cybaeidae</span> Family of spiders

Cybaeidae is a family of spiders first described by Nathan Banks in 1892. The diving bell spider or water spider Argyroneta aquatica was previously included in this family, but is now in the family Dictynidae.

Spider behavior refers to the range of behaviors and activities performed by spiders. Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms which is reflected in their large diversity of behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider cannibalism</span> Spiders consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food

Spider cannibalism is the act of a spider consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food. It is most commonly seen as an example of female sexual cannibalism where a female spider kills and eats a male before, during, or after copulation. Cases of non-sexual cannibalism or male cannibalism of females both occur but are notably rare.

<i>Ancylometes</i> Genus of spiders

Ancylometes is a genus of Central and South American semiaquatic wandering spiders first described by Philipp Bertkau in 1880. Originally placed with the nursery web spiders, it was moved to the Ctenidae in 1967. The genus name is derived in part from Ancient Greek "ἀγκύλος", meaning "crooked, bent".

<i>Notonecta glauca</i> Species of true bug

Notonecta glauca, also known as the greater water-boatman or common backswimmer, is a species of aquatic insect in the family Notonectidae. This species is found in large parts of Europe, North Africa, and east through Asia to Siberia and China. In much of its range it is the most common backswimmer species. It is also the most widespread and abundant of the four British water-boatmen. Notonecta glauca are Hemiptera predators, that are approximately 13–16 mm in length. Females have a larger body size compared to males. These water insects swim and rest on their back and are found under the water surface. Notonecta glauca supports itself under the water surface by using their front legs and mid legs and the back end of its abdomen and rest them on the water surface; They are able to stay under the water surface by water tension, also known as the air-water interface. They use the hind legs as oars; these legs are fringed with hair and, when at rest, are extended laterally like a pair of sculls in a boat. Notonecta glauca will either wait for its prey to pass by or will swim and actively hunt its prey. When the weather is warm, usually in the late summer and autumn, they will fly between ponds. Notonecta glauca reproduce in the spring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese water spider</span> Subspecies of spider

The Japanese water spider is a subspecies of the water spider. In Japanese it is called the mizugumo. The Japanese water spider is almost exactly like its European cousin. The only distinction between the two is that the Japanese water spider has larger genitalia. Like its cousin, the Japanese water spider lives under water by constructing diving bells, underwater spheres which contain oxygen, which they live in.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Six-spotted fishing spider</span> Species of spider

The six-spotted fishing spider is an arachnid from the nursery web spider family Pisauridae. This species is from the genus Dolomedes, or the fishing spiders. Found in wetland habitats throughout North America, these spiders are usually seen scampering along the surface of ponds and other bodies of water. They are also referred to as dock spiders because they can sometimes be witnessed quickly vanishing through the cracks of boat docks. D. triton gets its scientific name from the Greek mythological god Triton, who is the messenger of the big sea and the son of Poseidon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider</span> Order of arachnids

Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight limbs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every land habitat. As of September 2024, 52,309 spider species in 134 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been debate among scientists about how families should be classified, with over 20 different classifications proposed since 1900.

<i>Desis marina</i> Species of spider

Desis marina, the intertidal spider, is a spider species found in New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the Chatham Islands.

<i>Desis bobmarleyi</i> Species of arachnid

Desis bobmarleyi is an underwater spider species found in the shores of north eastern Queensland, Australia. It is known to build air chambers from silk. D. bobmarleyi is named in honour of the Jamaican singer-songwriter Bob Marley. As an intertidal species the name was inspired by Marley's song "High Tide or Low Tide". In April 2018 the World Register of Marine Species named it one of the top 10 most remarkable species discovered in 2017. The spider is an araneomorph. D. bobmarleyi is a recent discovery, which is important to note when examining its data. Additionally, because it is part of the genus Desis, it is considered a fully aquatic animal which is interesting because of its evolutionary history. The trnL2 and trnN genes, which are seen in marine spiders that are a part of the genus, must have experienced some kind of rearrangement that allowed for the development of its current traits. The long hairs on its legs and abdomen trap an air bubble which allows it to breathe while submerged.

The physiology of underwater diving is the physiological adaptations to diving of air-breathing vertebrates that have returned to the ocean from terrestrial lineages. They are a diverse group that include sea snakes, sea turtles, the marine iguana, saltwater crocodiles, penguins, pinnipeds, cetaceans, sea otters, manatees and dugongs. All known diving vertebrates dive to feed, and the extent of the diving in terms of depth and duration are influenced by feeding strategies, but also, in some cases, with predator avoidance. Diving behaviour is inextricably linked with the physiological adaptations for diving and often the behaviour leads to an investigation of the physiology that makes the behaviour possible, so they are considered together where possible. Most diving vertebrates make relatively short shallow dives. Sea snakes, crocodiles, and marine iguanas only dive in inshore waters and seldom dive deeper than 10 meters. Some of these groups can make much deeper and longer dives. Emperor penguins regularly dive to depths of 400 to 500 meters for 4 to 5 minutes, often dive for 8 to 12 minutes, and have a maximum endurance of about 22 minutes. Elephant seals stay at sea for between 2 and 8 months and dive continuously, spending 90% of their time underwater and averaging 20 minutes per dive with less than 3 minutes at the surface between dives. Their maximum dive duration is about 2 hours and they routinely feed at depths between 300 and 600 meters, though they can exceed depths of 1,600 meters. Beaked whales have been found to routinely dive to forage at depths between 835 and 1,070 meters, and remain submerged for about 50 minutes. Their maximum recorded depth is 1,888 meters, and the maximum duration is 85 minutes.

<i>Anolis aquaticus</i> Species of reptile

Anolis aquaticus, commonly known as the water anole, is a semi-aquatic species of anole, a lizard in the family Dactyloidae, native to southwestern Costa Rica and far southwestern Panama. The species demonstrates adaptations that allows it to spend periods of time underwater up to approximately a quarter of an hour, forming an air bubble which clings to its head and serves to recycle the animal's air supply while it spends time beneath the surface. Although highly unusual, similar adaptions and behavior are found in other species of semi-aquatic anoles.

<i>Laccotrephes tristis</i> Species of insect

Laccotrephes tristis is a species of water scorpion also commonly known as a toe-biter, that occurs Australia-wide and is part of the family Nepidae. They are an aquatic predatory insect that breath air. Australian water scorpions inhabit shallow stagnant water, part of freshwater creeks, waterholes and gorges.

References

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  6. ↑ Walckenaer, C. A. (1837). Histoire naturelle des insectes. Aptères. p.  603.
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  13. ↑ Swierk, Lindsey; Petrula, Macy; Esquete, Patricia (2022). "Diving behavior in a Neotropical spider ( Trechalea extensa ) as a potential antipredator tactic". Ethology. 128 (6): 508–512. doi:10.1111/eth.13281. S2CID   248136192.
  14. ↑ Baehr, B.C.; Raven, R.; Harms, D. (2017). ""High Tide or Low Tide": Desis bobmarleyi sp. n., a new spider from coral reefs in Australia's Sunshine State and its relative from Sāmoa (Araneae, Desidae, Desis)". Evolutionary Systematics. 1: 111–120. doi: 10.3897/evolsyst.1.15735 .
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  17. ↑ Nyffeler, M.; Pusey, B.J. (2014). "Fish Predation by Semi-Aquatic Spiders: A Global Pattern". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e99459. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...999459N. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099459 . PMC   4062410 . PMID   24940885.
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  22. ↑ 김, 주필, "연천 은대리 물거미 서식지 (漣川 隱垈里 물거미 棲息地) Yeoncheon Eundae-ri water spider habitat", 한국민족문화대백과사전 [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture] (in Korean), Academy of Korean Studies, retrieved 2024-03-29
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  26. 1 2 3 Chandramita Bora. "Water Spider". Archived from the original on 2013-11-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
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