Related Research Articles
In ancient Celtic and Gallo-Roman religion, Cernunnos or Carnonos is a god depicted with antlers, seated cross-legged, and is associated with stags, horned serpents, dogs and bulls. He is usually shown holding or wearing a torc and sometimes holding a bag of coins and a cornucopia. He is believed to have originally been a Proto-Celtic God. There are more than fifty depictions and inscriptions referring to him, mainly in the north-eastern region of Gaul. Cernunnos is also associated with the Wiccan Horned God in the modern religious tradition of Wicca, via the discredited Witch-cult hypothesis.
Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined, and a given pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.
Belenus is an ancient Celtic healing god. The cult of Belenus stretched from the Italian Peninsula to the British Isles, with a main sanctuary located at Aquileia, on the Adriatic coast. Through interpretatio romana, Belenus was often identified with Apollo, although his cult seems to have preserved a certain degree of autonomy during the Roman period.
In Gallo-Roman religion, Damona was a goddess worshipped in Gaul as the consort of Apollo Borvo and of Apollo Moritasgus.
Ogmios was the Celtic deity of eloquence. He is described as resembling an older version of Heracles, and uses his powers of persuasion to bind men to himself, with stories describing thin, long chains connecting his tongue to the ears of his followers.
In Celtic polytheism, Sirona was a goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. A healing deity, she was associated with healing springs; her attributes were snakes and eggs. She was sometimes depicted with Apollo Grannus or Apollo Borvo. She was particularly worshipped by the Treveri in the Moselle Valley.
Lugus was a deity of the Celtic pantheon. His name is rarely directly attested in inscriptions, but his importance can be inferred from place names and ethnonyms. His nature and attributes are deduced from the distinctive iconography of Gallo-Roman inscriptions to Mercury, who is widely believed to have been identified with Lugus, and from the quasi-mythological narratives involving his later cognates, Welsh Lleu Llaw Gyffes and Irish Lugh Lámhfhada.
Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.
Old French was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intelligible yet diverse, spoken in the northern half of France. These dialects came to be collectively known as the langue d'oïl, contrasting with the langue d'oc in the south of France. The mid-14th century witnessed the emergence of Middle French, the language of the French Renaissance in the Île de France region; this dialect was a predecessor to Modern French. Other dialects of Old French evolved themselves into modern forms, each with its own linguistic features and history.
*Dyḗus, also *Dyḗus ph₂tḗr, is the reconstructed name of the daylight-sky god in Proto-Indo-European mythology. *Dyēus was conceived as a divine personification of the bright sky of the day and the seat of the gods, the *deywṓs. Associated with the vast diurnal sky and with the fertile rains, *Dyēus was often paired with *Dʰéǵʰōm, the Earth Mother, in a relationship of union and contrast.
Icovellauna was a Celtic goddess worshiped in Gaul. Her places of worship included an octagonal temple at Le Sablon in Metz, originally built over a spring, from which five inscriptions dedicated to her have been recovered, and Trier, where Icovellauna was honored in an inscription in the Altbachtal temple complex. Both of these places lie in the valley of the river Moselle of eastern Gaul in what are now Lorraine in France and Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. One such inscription was, somewhat unusually, inscribed on a copper tablet in Roman cursive letters.
In the Latvian language, nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals are inflected in six declensions. There are seven cases:
In ancient Roman religion, Bubona is thought to have been a goddess of cattle, but she is named only by Saint Augustine.
A triad, in a religious context, refers to a grouping of three gods, usually by importance or similar roles. A triad of gods were usually not considered to be one in the same being, or different aspects of a single deity as in a Trinity or Triple deity.
The gods and goddesses of the pre-Christian Celtic peoples are known from a variety of sources, including ancient places of worship, statues, engravings, cult objects, and place or personal names. The ancient Celts appear to have had a pantheon of deities comparable to others in Indo-European religion, each linked to aspects of life and the natural world. Epona was an exception and retained without association with any Roman deity. By a process of syncretism, after the Roman conquest of Celtic areas, most of these became associated with their Roman equivalents, and their worship continued until Christianization. Pre-Roman Celtic art produced few images of deities, and these are hard to identify, lacking inscriptions, but in the post-conquest period many more images were made, some with inscriptions naming the deity. Most of the specific information we have therefore comes from Latin writers and the archaeology of the post-conquest period. More tentatively, links can be made between ancient Celtic deities and figures in early medieval Irish and Welsh literature, although all these works were produced well after Christianization.
In the Gaulish language, Dusios was a divine being among the continental Celts who was identified with the god Pan of ancient Greek religion and with the gods Faunus, Inuus, Silvanus, and Incubus of ancient Roman religion. Like these deities, he might be seen as multiple in nature, and referred to in the plural (dusioi), most commonly in Latin as dusii. Although the Celtic Dusios is not described in late-antique sources independently of Greek and Roman deities, the common functionality of the others lay in their ability to impregnate animals and women, often by surprise or force. Dusii continue to play a role in the magico-religious belief systems of Gaul and Francia as a type of incubus in early-medieval paganism and Christianity.
The Lympha is an ancient Roman deity of fresh water. She is one of twelve agricultural deities listed by Varro as "leaders" (duces) of Roman farmers, because "without water all agriculture is dry and poor." The Lymphae are often connected to Fons, meaning "Source" or "Font," a god of fountains and wellheads. Lympha represents a "functional focus" of fresh water, according to Michael Lipka's conceptual approach to Roman deity, or more generally moisture.
Gaulish is an extinct Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul. In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe ("Noric"), parts of the Balkans, and Anatolia ("Galatian"), which are thought to have been closely related. The more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish.
The Dexivates were a small Gallic tribe dwelling in the southern part of modern Vaucluse, near the present-day village of Cadenet, during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
References
- 1 2 3 Delamarre 2003, pp. 142–143: "...dérivé fréquent Deuona, Diuona 'Divine' qui semble avoir désigné d'abord une source sacrée (...) et des cours d'eau..."
- ↑ Bourgeois 1991a, pp. 7–8.
- ↑ Desmet 1998, p. 8.
- ↑ Duval 1993, p. 193.
- ↑ Ausonius, Ordo nobilium urbium 20.30–31 (Green lines 157–158). The adjectives are masculine to agree with fons and appear in the vocative case, as is customary for a Latin invocation.
- ↑ The color word glaucus (Greek glaukos) evokes a range of grey, green, and blue indeterminately, and can often be translated as "sea-colored" or even "sky-colored." It has divine connotations and is associated with various deities, for instance, as the color of Athena's eyes. See P.G. Maxwell-Stuart, Studies in Greek Colour Terminology: ΓΛΑΥΚΟΣ (Brill, 1981), vol. 1, pp. 40–42, and a brief discussion of the color as associated with Pluto.
- ↑ The phrase fons addite divis is somewhat difficult to interpret. It is sometimes construed as "fons" addite "divis", that is "Add (plural imperative) the word fons to the word divae/divi" (masculine singular divus ). In the plural dative and ablative cases, the masculine and feminine forms are the same, and divis could be either, but Ausonius seems to be connecting the masculine fons to the feminine Divona. In Latin, the word lymphae , plural, means "waters" but is also an Italic word for "nymphs"; a plural divae here might suggest the same tendency to regard water nymphs as both a singular and a plural collective. The verbal form addite, however, can also be construed as a perfect passive participle in the vocative case, parallel in construction with the string of vocative adjectives, that is, "Fons, added to the goddesses." Ausonius "hails" (salve) the "Genius of the city," but genius is not in the vocative case. Fons addite divis is sometimes taken as a proffered etymology: Ausonius may be proposing that the word Divona is formed from the word divus, Gaulish devos, plus fons = -ona, taking fons as the equivalent of a Gaulish word onno, "stream, river," the existence of which is doubtful. The suffix -ona is found in the names of several Gallic goddesses. See Delamarre, Dictionnaire, pp. 142–143 on deuos, including discussion of Divona/Devona; p. 242 on onno; p. 324 on unna, "water(s)". See also George Long, entry on "Divona," Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), vol. 1, p. 780; Edward Anwyl, "Ancient Celtic Goddesses," Celtic Review 3 (1906–07), pp. 43–44; Robert E.A. Palmer, Roman Religion and Roman Empire: Five Essays (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974), p. 264; Ken Dowden, European Paganism: The Realities of Cult from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Routledge, 2000), p. 54.
- ↑ Ausonius, Ordo nobilium urbium 20.30 and 32 (Loeb Classical Library numbering); Divona appears in line 160 in the numbering of R.P.H. Green, The Works of Ausonius (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 175.
Bibliography
- Bourgeois, Claude (1991a). Divona: Divinités et ex-voto du culte gallo-romain de l'eau (in French). Vol. 1. De Boccard. ISBN 978-2-7018-0061-5.
- Bourgeois, Claude (1991b). Divona: Monuments et sanctuaires du culte gallo-romain de l'eau (in French). Vol. 2. De Boccard. ISBN 978-2701800653.
- Desmet, Yves (1998). "Le culte des eaux dans le Nord de la Gaule pendant le haut Moyen Age". Revue du Nord. 80 (324): 7–27. doi:10.3406/rnord.1998.2860.
- Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental (in French). Errance. ISBN 9782877723695.
- Duval, Paul-Marie (1993). "The Religion and Myths of the Continental Celts of Gaul". In Bonnefoy, Yves (ed.). American, African, and Old European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06457-4.
| General | |
|---|---|
| National libraries | |
| Other | |
