Cernunnos

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Cernunnos on the Gundestrup cauldron (plate A). He sits cross-legged, wielding a torc in one hand and a ram-horned serpent in the other Gundestrupkedlen- 00054 (cropped).jpg
Cernunnos on the Gundestrup cauldron (plate A). He sits cross-legged, wielding a torc in one hand and a ram-horned serpent in the other

Cernunnos is a Celtic stag god. His name is only clearly attested once, on the 1st-century Pillar of the Boatmen from Paris, where it is associated with an image of an aged, antlered figure with torcs around his horns.

Contents

Through the Pillar of the Boatmen, Cernunnos has been connected with over twenty-five other depictions of antlered figures. He has a complicated iconography, in which he is portrayed with antlers and crossed legs, and associated with torcs, stags, and ram-headed serpents (among other wild animals). The meaning and origin of these attributes have been much debated. The cult of Cernunnos is best attested in north-eastern Gaul, but depictions of the god have been identified as far off as Italy (Val Camonica) and Denmark (Gundestrup).

Cernunnos has been interpreted as a god of fertility, of the underworld, and of bi-directionality. His cult seems to have been largely unaffected by the Roman conquest of Gaul, during which he remained unassimilated to the Roman pantheon. Cernunnos has been tentatively linked with Conall Cernach, a hero of medieval Irish mythology, and some later depictions of cross-legged and horned figures in medieval art.

Name

Pillar of the Boatmen

Cernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen
Pilier des Nautes Cernunos.jpg
Its present state
Gaulish deity Cernunnos.jpg
18th century drawing

The Pillar of the Boatmen is a Gallo-Roman carved pillar discovered in 1711 under the choir of Notre-Dame de Paris. It is a religious monument, with depictions of Roman gods (Jupiter, Vulcan, and Castor and Pollux) alongside native Gaulish deities (such as Esus and Smertrios), dedicated by a corporation of boatmen from the city of Lutetia (Roman Paris). The dedication dates it to the reign of Tiberius (14-37 CE). [1] Legends below the images identify the Roman and Gaulish deities by name. In fact, this is the only monument on which Celtic deities are identified by name with captions. [2] : 67–71 

On one block from the pillar, a frowning, bearded figure is depicted from the shoulder up. His face is human, but his upper head is animal-like: hairless and bulging. Atop his head is a pair of bifid deer's antlers, with two short, pointed extrusions (perhaps ears or bull's horns) between them. A torc hangs on each of his antlers. The lower half of the block is lost, but given its original height, the figure could not have been standing. Therefore (in line with other figures identified as Cernunnos) the panel is often believed to have originally shown him cross-legged. [1] [3] : 165 

Above the antlered figure is a one-word legend. When information about the pillar was published in 1711, this legend was reported as "Cernunnos". However, the block is now badly damaged. Many of the letters are only partially visible; the letter "C" is entirely gone. [1] Joshua Whatmough has gone as far as to say that in its present state "only 'nn' is certain". [4] : 517  The reading from 1711 has sometimes been mistrusted. Joseph Vendryes and Whatmough argue (following the Dacia inscription) that it read "Cernennos". [5] : 335  Françoise Le Roux  [ fr ] was sceptical about the existence of the final "s". [6] : 324 

Possible other attestations

A capital with Gaulish karnonou or karnomou Carnonos on RIG I G-224.jpg
A capital with Gaulish καρνονου or καρνομου

A capital found in Aumes, France [a] is inscribed with a short Gaulish text in Greek letters. Michel Lejeune has interpreted this inscription as a dedication to a god καρνονου (translit. karnonou; in English, "Carnonos"), whom he tentatively connects with the god Cernunnos. However, both Lejeune's reading and his interpretation of this inscription have been contested. Whatmough and D. Ellis Evans prefer the reading καρνομου (translit. karnomou); and Emmanuel Dupraz has argued that the inscription states that an object καρνον (translit. karnon) is being offered, rather than giving the name of a god. [7] [8] : 327 

A wax tablet from Dacia [b] records a decree of 167 CE dissolving one collegi(i) Iovi Cerneni ("collegium of Jupiter Cernenus"), a funerary association. [9] David Fickett-Wilbar identifies this as a reference to Cernunnos, though he comments that it "tells us nothing about the deity other than his name". [10] : 80–81  Michael Altjohann suggests the byname Cerneni derives from a place-name, rather than a theonym. [2] : 70  Le Roux is also sceptical that it is a reference to Cernunnos, as she thinks an interpretatio of Cernunnos with the Roman god Jupiter would be unlikely. [6] : 328 

A bronze tabula ansata from Steinsel, Luxembourg, [c] dating between the late 2nd and early 3rd century CE, is dedicated to one Deo Ceruninco ("god Cerunincus"). Though close in name to Cernunnos, the editors of L'Année épigraphique argue that the form of the name entails that it must be another (probably Treverian) god. [11]

Etymology

The earliest etymology, proposed by Alfred Holder, connected Cernunnos's name with a Celtic word for horn, a reflex of proto-Indo-European * ḱerh₂- ("horn, hoof"). Hence, Holder analysed the name as "The Horned God". This etymology has the advantage of a close link with Cernunnos's iconography. However, Ernst Windisch and Leo Weisgerber pointed out that ablaut form of the proto-Indo-European root in Celtic is *karno [d] rather than *kerno. [6] : 325  [14] : 105 

Weisgerber proposed that the theonym derived from proto-Celtic *kerno ("angle, excrescence"), [e] a reflex of the same proto-Indo-European root. [14] : 106  [13] : 203  Le Roux concurred with Weisgerber; she associated proto-Celtic *kerno with the meaning "top of the head", and argued that Cernunnos's name should be interpreted as "the one who has the top of his head like a deer". [6] : 328–329  Vendryes suggested that the name was cognate with the Old Irish word cern ("hero"). [15] : 162 

Iconography

A large number of images of an antlered figure, similar to that depicted on the Pillar of the Boatmen, have been found. These depict a male figure, often aged, with crossed legs, with antlers atop his head, who is associated with ram-horned (or ram-headed) serpents, torcs, symbols of fertility, and wild beasts (especially deer). [16] : 59–60  [17] : 348  It is conventional to apply to the name of "Cernunnos" to images which fit within this cluster of attributes. [18] At least twenty-five images have been connected with Cernunnos in this way. [f] Some, such as William Sayers and T. G. E. Powell, have questioned whether the name given on the Pillar (which is so rare in epigraphy) is appropriate to apply to these images. [17] : 329, fn 9  Pierre Lambrechts and Michael Altjohann have even argued that no such well-defined cluster of attributes exists in the archaeological record. [20] : 16  [2] : 78  [g]

Distribution and history

The majority of the images identified as of Cernunnos have been found in Gaul, clustered around Paris and Reims. A rock drawing in Valcamonica (Lombardy, Italy) and the figure on Plate A of the Gundestrup cauldron (found in Himmerland, Denmark) are conspicuous geographic exceptions. [10] : 82–83  Engraved onto a rock at the prehistoric site of Val Camonica is a tall figure with antlers atop is head, arms in orans position, and a torc around his right arm. Besides him, on his right, are a ram-horned serpent and a smaller man (ithyphallic, arms in orans position). [19] : 839  The detailed scene on Plate A of the Gundestrup cauldron has Cernunnos cross-legged, wielding a torc in one hand and a ram-horned serpent in the other. Around him are many animals: two bulls, a stag, a dolphin with a rider, griffins, and a hyena. [19] : 839–840  [20] : 19  The provenance and date of the Gundestrup cauldron have been the subject of much debate. [19] : 842  Cernunnos has been tentatively connected with images over a large geographical range, including Britain, Spain, Austria, Slovenia, and Romania. [2] : fn 32 

The God of Bouray: a rare pre-Roman depiction of a Gaulish god. Cross-legged and hooved, the relationship of this Gaulish god to Cernunnos with uncertain. Francoise Foliot - Dieu de Bouray.jpg
The God of Bouray: a rare pre-Roman depiction of a Gaulish god. Cross-legged and hooved, the relationship of this Gaulish god to Cernunnos with uncertain.

The earliest datable representations of Cernunnos in Gaul date, like the Pillar of the Boatmen, to the reign of Tiberius (i.e., 14-37 CE); [14] : 104  the latest to the 3rd century CE. [19] : 842  The archaeological evidence for images of deities in Gaul is scant before the Roman conquest. [22] : 205  The God of Bouray, a bronze statuette probably produced not long before the Roman conquest, depicts a Gaulish god with crossed legs and hooves. The relationship of this god with Cernunnos is uncertain. [23] : 231  [20] : 33–34 

Outside of Gaul, much earlier representations of Cernunnos are known. [16] : 59  The drawing from Valcamonica dates to 4th century BCE. José Maria Blázquez has argued that a painted vase, dating to the 2nd century BCE, from the Celtiberian site of Numantia, gives another early representation of Cernunnos. [19] : 839  The Gundestrup cauldron, of either Thracian or Celtic work, has been assigned to dates within a large range (from 200 BCE to 300 CE). [24] : 53 

After Christianisation, images of Cernunnos were the subject of iconoclastic destruction. A statue of Cernunnos from Verteuil (Charente, France) was beheaded [25] : 249  and the horns of Cernunnos on the Reims altar seem to have been purposefully chipped off. [25] : 244 

Some scholars (such as Duval and Bober) have suggested that Cernunnos's distinctive iconography persisted into the medieval period. [26] : 121  [20] : 44  Cernunnos has been seen on Christian monuments from Ireland, such as the north cross at Clonmacnoise, the market cross at Kells, and a stele at Carndonagh. [27] : 32  The figure identified as Cernunnos on the 9th-century Clonmacnoise north cross appears to have horns and crossed legs; Fickett-Wilbar argues that these are misidentified ornamental motifs. [10] : 85  On the Continent, Cernunnos has been seen in the Stuttgart Psalter and on a capital of Parma Cathedral. [26] : 121  A leaf from the c. 820 Stuttgart Psalter depicts the Descent into Limbo, with a devil figure (perhaps Hades) whom Bober identifies as of the Cernunnos-type, "complete with cross-legged posture, antlers, and even a ram-headed serpent", [20] : 44  though J. R. M. Galpern identifies the features on the devil's head as wings, and connects them with motifs from Late Antique and Roman funerary art. [28] : 254 

Attributes and associations

A seated figure from Roquepertuse Roquepertuse. Statue de guerrier.jpg
A seated figure from Roquepertuse

The cross-legged pose of Cernunnos has occasioned much comment. Elaborate diffusionist theories have been proposed to explain the origin of this particular motif. [20] : 22–25  A popular theory proposes that the pose represents the transmission of a Buddhist motif (the lotus pose) from India via Greco-Egyptian work. [19] : 842  Against a diffusionist hypothesis, Robert Mowat argued that this pose reflected the normal sitting position of the Gauls; he cited the testimony of Strabo and Diodorus that the Gauls sat on the floor for meals. [10] : 92  [20] : 21  In religious iconography, the position does not seem to have been exclusively associated with Cernunnos. Statues from the pre-Roman Gaulish sanctuary of Roquepertuse assume the same pose; though clearly of religious significance, they are not representations of Cernunnos. [19] : 842  Representations of Cernunnos standing are known (such as the early example from Val Camonica). [19] : 839 

Cernunnos is often depicted with torcs adorning his body. Most commonly he grasps one, and wears another around his neck. Sometimes he holds another on his chest. [19] : 843  The torc is a ubiquitous feature of Celtic art and garb. They seem to have been a symbol of religious significance in Celtic art and, after the Roman conquest, perhaps a symbol of native identity. [25] : 81 

Ram-horned serpent on the Gundestrup cauldron (plate C) Gundestrup cauldron, plate C, horned serpent.jpg
Ram-horned serpent on the Gundestrup cauldron (plate C)

The ram-horned (or ram-headed) serpent is a hybrid beast peculiar to the Celts. [26] : 38  The creature, which is associated with Cernunnos early as Val Camonica, appears to have had a significance independent of Cernunnos. In Gaul, ram-horned serpents are depicted alone or accompanying Mars or Mercury. Ram-horned serpents also feature on two other plates of the Gundestrup cauldron (C and E). Cernunnos is also sometimes accompanied by serpents without the attributes of a ram, as on the Vendœuvres relief. [19] : 843  The ram-horned serpent has been suggested to have a chthonic significance. [20] : 26 

Some scholars, such as Miranda Green, have connected Cernunnos with the Lord of the Animals motif through such depictions as the Gundestrup cauldron, where Cernunnos is placed centrally around a number of animals. [20] : 19  [29] : 93–94  The closest parallel to the Gundestrup scene is given on the Lyon cup, where Cernunnos is surrounded by a deer, a hound, and a (hornless) snake. [10] : 87 

On various depictions, Cernunnos is associated with other deities. The significance of these associations is unclear. [19] : 843  On three depictions, Cernunnos is paired with Mercury and Apollo; on the Lyon cup, he is paired with Mercury alone. Cernunnos is also depicted twice with Abundantia, Roman god of prosperity, and twice with Hercules. [10] : 102  [19] : 841  Three images of Cernunnos (among them, the Condat tricephal and Étang-sur-Arroux statuette) give Cernunnos three heads or faces. [19] : 844  Bober argued that these images represent the syncretisation of Cernunnos with the (poorly understood) tricephalic god of Gaul. [20] : 34 

Interpretation

Because of his persistent association with the natural world (for example, on the Gundestrup cauldron, where he is surrounded by various beasts), some scholars describe Cernunnos as the lord of animals or wild things. [10] : 80  Miranda Green describes him as a "peaceful god of nature and fruitfulness". [23] : 228 

Cernunnos is also associated with fertility and fecundity. [10] : 80  Blazquez points out that the stag is a symbol of fertility across the Mediterranean. [19] : 843  The association of Cernunnos with fertility is emphasised by other attributes. He is variously provided with a basket of fruit (as on the Étang-sur-Arroux statuette), a cornucopia (as on the Lyon cup), and a bag of coins (as on the Reims altar). [19] : 843 

It has been suggested that Cernunnos carried a chthonic significance. [19] : 843  Bober's study of the god concluded that Cernunnos was god of the underworld. [10] : 80  She analyses the ram-horned serpent as the synthesis of two animals (the snake and the ram) of chthonic significance to the Celts. [20] : 26–27  The rat above Cernunnos on the Reims altar and the association of Cernunnos with Mercury (guide of souls to the underworld) on several representations have also been thought to suggest an association with the underworld. [19] : 843 

Fickett-Wilbar, in a recent study, has proposed that Cernunnos was a god of bi-directionality and mediator between opposites. [10] : 108 

Cernunnos and interpretatio romana

Altar from Reims with Cernunnos in between Apollo and Mercury. Autel de Cernunnos, sculpture, 1er siecle.jpg
Altar from Reims with Cernunnos in between Apollo and Mercury.

The process of interpretatio romana , by which the Romans identified and syncretised gods of foreign cults with gods of their own pantheon, is one which Cernunnos seems to have been peculiarly resistant to. He has been compared in this respect with Epona and Sucellus, other Gallo-Roman gods with distinctive iconographies, though unlike them his iconography predates the Roman conquest. [32] : 222  Cernunnos is not paired with any Greco-Roman god in epigraphy, [32] : 221  with the possible exception of the Dacia inscription. [6] : 328  The iconography of Cernunnos occasionally borrows from that of Mercury, [14] : 104  and the representation of Cernunnos on the Vendœuvres relief seems to have been influenced by depictions of Jupiter Dolichenus. [19] : 842  [20] : 51  However, even when paired with Roman deities (as on the Reims altar), Cernunnos's iconography is distinctly Celtic. [32] : fn 113  It has been suggested that this was because there was no clear Roman equivalent to Cernunnos. [33] : 88 

Cernunnos does not appear in any ancient sources under his native name. [19] : 839  Some passages from ancient authors referring to Celtic gods under Greek or Roman names (per the usual interpretatio romana or graeca) have been tentatively connected with Cernunnos. Caesar's remark that the Gauls regarded themselves as descendants of Dis Pater (Roman god of the underworld) has occasioned much comment. Though Sucellus is the Gaulish god most commonly identified as behind Dis Pater in this passage, Cernunnos has also been considered as a candidate. [22] : 210  Bober has argued that Cernunnos was a "chthonic-fertility" god, like Dis Pater, and therefore that this was a natural identification to make. [20] : 44  A story about the Roman general Sertorius (reported by Plutarch, among others) describes Sertorius's attempts to take advantage of local Lusitanian religious feeling by declaring a white doe a gift of Artemis (Greek goddess of the hunt) and pretending he could use it for divination. The Lusitanians were Celts, and it has been suggested by David Rankin that the god behind this Lusitanian Artemis was Cernunnos. [34] : 558–559  Rankin has also suggested that Cernunnos and Smertrios lay behind the Greek historian Timaeus's description of a cult of the Dioscuri among the oceanic Celts, though Andreas Hofeneder regards this as unprovable. [22] : 59–60 

Cernunnos and later mythology

Conall Cernach

Conall is a hero of the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. The companion and foster brother of Cúchulainn, he appears in such stories as Táin Bó Cúailnge , and several tales involving Fraích (such as Táin Bó Fraích and Fled Bricrenn ). [35] Conall's byname "Cernach" has been linked with Old Irish word cern (with the meanings of "excrescence, angle", "plate", and "victory"). Through this root, there have been attempts to connect Conall with Cernunnos. [17] : 348–349 

A brief passage involving Conall in the Táin Bó Fraích ("The Cattle Raid on Fraích") has been taken by Anne Ross as evidence that Conall bore a connection with Cernunnos. In this episode, Conall assists the protagonist Fraích in rescuing his wife and son, and reclaiming his cattle. The fort that Conall must penetrate is guarded by a mighty serpent. This fearsome serpent, instead of attacking Conall, darts to Conall's waist and girdles him as a belt. Rather than killing the serpent, Conall allows it to live, and then proceeds to attack and rob the fort of its great treasures the serpent previously protected. Ross explains the serpent's anticlimactic behaviour with reference to the images of Cernunnos with ram-horned serpents curled around him (as on the Étang-sur-Arroux statuette). [36] : 47 

Other mythologies

Cernunnos has also been suggested to have survived in other legends. Justin Favrod suggests that a fertility festival (perhaps involving deer costumes), held on the 1 January in some Celtic countries and suppressed by the church after Christianisation, represented a festival to Cernunnos. [37] Gwilherm Berthou equated Cernunnos with the mythical Breton Saint Cornély  [ fr ], protector of cattle. [5] : 337  R. Lowe Thompson suggested that Herne the Hunter, an antlered ghost of English folklore first attested in Shakespeare, was cognate with Cernunnos. [38] : 133 

Neopaganism and Wicca

Within Neopaganism, specifically the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God is a deity that is believed to be the equal to the Great Goddess and syncretizes various horned or antlered gods from various cultures. The name Cernunnos became associated with the Wiccan Horned God through the adoption of the writings of Margaret Murray, an Egyptologist and folklorist of the early 20th century. Murray, through her Witch-cult hypothesis, believed that the various horned deities found in Europe were expressions of a "proto-horned god" and in 1931 published her theory in The God of the Witches. Her work was considered highly controversial at the time, but was adopted by Gerald Gardner in his development of the religious movement of Wicca. [39]

Within the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God reflects the seasons of the year in an annual cycle of life, death and rebirth and his imagery is a blend of the Gaulish god Cernunnos, the Greek god Pan, The Green Man motif, and various other horned spirit imagery. [40] [41]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ RIG I G-224
  2. ↑ CIL III, p 0924,01
  3. ↑ AE 1987, 772
  4. ↑ The presence of this ablaut form in proto-Celtic is attested by two Gaulish words for trumpets (karnon and karnyx ), Middle Welsh carn ("hoof"), Old Breton carn ("horse's hoof)", and perhaps Old Irish cruë ("hoof"). Semantically similar words with an o vowel (such as two Insular words both meaning horn, Old Irish corn and Welsh corn) are probably loanwords from the Latin (cornu for "horn"), but Gaulish toponyms showing the form might hint at the presence of the reflex *korno ("horn") in proto-Celtic. [12] : 5–6  [13] : 191 
  5. ↑ Attested by Old Irish cern ("angle, corner"), Middle Welsh cern ("corner, jaw, cheek, side"), Middle Breton quern ("top"), Cornish Kernow ("Cornwall"). [12] : 113  [13] : 215 
  6. ↑ The Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae lists 25 images of Cernunnos. [19] : 839–842  Bober discusses over fifty images in relation to the Cernunnos, though she does not identify all these images as of Cernunnos. [20] : 45–51 
  7. ↑ In his Contributions à l'étude des divinités celtiques (1942), Lambrechts examined anthropomorphic representations of Celtic gods (in the process, examining three types associated with Cernunnos: the images of cross-legged divinities, tricephalic divinities, and divinities associated with ram serpents) and argued that all were merely regional representations of a single, poorly defined and multifunctional, supreme god of the Celts: Esus-Teutates. [20] : 16  [21] More recently, Altjohann has argued that the attributes of the Cernunnos type are freely correlated with other non-Cernunnos types, and that therefore no clearly defined god called Cernunnos can be identified within Roman Gaul. [2] : 78–79 

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The Waterloo Helmet is a pre-Roman Celtic bronze ceremonial horned helmet with repoussé decoration in the La Tène style, dating to circa 150–50 BC, that was found in 1868 in the River Thames by Waterloo Bridge in London, England. It is now on display at the British Museum in London.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Celtic mythology</span>

Celtic mythology is the body of myths belonging to the Celtic peoples. Like other Iron Age Europeans, Celtic peoples followed a polytheistic religion, having many gods and goddesses. The mythologies of continental Celtic peoples, such as the Gauls and Celtiberians, did not survive their conquest by the Roman Empire, the loss of their Celtic languages and their subsequent conversion to Christianity. Only remnants are found in Greco-Roman sources and archaeology. Most surviving Celtic mythology belongs to the Insular Celtic peoples. They preserved some of their myths in oral lore, which were eventually written down by Christian scribes in the Middle Ages. Irish mythology has the largest written body of myths, followed by Welsh mythology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God of Bouray</span>

The God of Bouray is a Celtic bronze statuette dredged from the River Juine within Bouray-sur-Juine. The statuette is of a cross-legged human figure with an oversized head and hooved feet. It is thought to represent a Gallic god, perhaps the stag-god Cernunnos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God of Amiens</span> Statue of a Gallo-Roman god in France

The God of Amiens is a Gallo-Roman bronze statuette found in Amiens, Somme. The statuette, which has been dated to the end of the 1st century CE, is of a male youth sat cross-legged, with the right ear of an animal, perhaps a deer's. This statuette is on display at the Musée de Picardie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God of Étang-sur-Arroux</span>

The God of Étang-sur-Arroux is a Gallo-Roman bronze statuette, probably found in the commune of Étang-sur-Arroux, not far from Autun, France.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyon cup</span>

The Lyon cup is a silver Gallo-Roman cup found in Lyon, France.

References

  1. 1 2 3 RIG II.1 L-14 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 9 December 2024.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Altjohann, Michael (2003). "Cernunnos-Darstellungen in den gallischen und germanischen Provinzen". In Noelke, Peter (ed.). Romanisation und Resistenz in Plastik, Architektur und Inschriften der Provinzen des Imperium Romanum. Neue Funde und Forschungen. Mainz: von Zabern. pp. 67–79.
  3. ↑ Vertet, M. Hugues (1987). "Observations sur le dieu "Cernunnos" de l'autel de Paris". Bulletin de la Société nationale des Antiquaires de France: 163–177. doi:10.3406/bsnaf.1987.9155.
  4. ↑ Whatmough, Joshua (1970). The Dialects of Ancient Gaul: Prolegomena and Records of the Dialects . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  5. 1 2 Olmsted, Garrett S. (2017). The Gods of the Celts and the Indo-Europeans (Revised ed.). Tazewell, VA.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Le Roux, Françoise (1953). "Cernunnos" (PDF). Ogam. 5: 324–329.
  7. ↑ RIG I G-224 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 9 December 2024.
  8. ↑ Evans, D. Ellis (1967). Gaulish Personal Names: A Study of Some Continental Celtic Formations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  9. ↑ Kloppenborg, John S. (13 December 2018). "[69] Decree Dissolving an Association (167 CE)". Associations in the Greco-Roman World. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
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  11. ↑ "No. 772 (Trois Gaules)". L'Année épigraphique 1987. Presses Universitaires de France. 1990. p. 220. JSTOR   25607525. = "No. 542 (Trois Gaules)". L'Année épigraphique 1989. Presses Universitaires de France. 1992. pp. 167–168. JSTOR   25607598.
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  16. 1 2 Green, Miranda (1997). Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend . London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN   978-0500279755.
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  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Bober, Phyllis Pray (January 1951). "Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity". American Journal of Archaeology. 55 (1): 13–51. doi:10.2307/501179. JSTOR   501179.
  21. ↑ Drioux, G. (1944). "Review: Pierre Lambrechts, Contributions à l'étude des divinités celtiques (1944)". Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique. 40: 322-324. ProQuest   1302279803.
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  23. 1 2 Green, Miranda (1992). Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. London: Routledge.
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  30. ↑ Blázquez, José María (1957). "Una réplica desconocida al Cernunnos de Val Camonica: el Cernunnos de Numancia". Revue d'Études Ligures. 23 (3–4): 294–298.
  31. ↑ Baigl, Jean-Philippe; Vernou, Christian (2001). "Un nouveau Cernunnos découvert en Charente". Aquitania: Une revue inter-régionale d'archéologie. 18: 7–28. doi:10.3406/aquit.2001.1319.
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  34. ↑ Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  35. ↑ MacKillop, James (2004). "Conall Cernach". Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.
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  37. ↑ Favrod, Justin (1992). "Les évêques des Gaules et la fête de Cernunnos: une hypothèse sur l'origine des rogations". Études de Lettres: Revue de la Faculté des lettres de l'Université de Lausanne. doi:10.5169/seals-870447.
  38. ↑ Thompson, R. Lowe (1929). The History of the Devil: The Horned God Of The West. London: K. Paul.
  39. ↑ "Forced into the Fringe: Margaret Murray's Witch-Cult Hypothesis". 21 April 2017. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  40. ↑ Farrar, Stewart & Janet, Eight Sabbats for Witches
  41. ↑ The Rebirth of Witchcraft, Doreen Valiente, page 52-53

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