Environmental issues in Africa

Last updated

A gutter that connect to the odona drainage is choked with plastic waste in Ghana. Choked gutter.jpg
A gutter that connect to the odona drainage is choked with plastic waste in Ghana.

African environmental problems are problems caused by the direct and indirect human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life in Africa. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, coastal erosion, garbage pollution, climate change, Oil spills, Biodiversity loss, and water scarcity (resulting in problems with access to safe water supply and sanitation). [1] These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty. [2] The scarcity of climate adaptation techniques in Africa makes it the least resilient continent to climate change.

Contents

Deforestation

Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood in near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood in near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda 07.jpg
Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood in near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda

The large scale felling of trees and the resulting decreases in forest areas are the main environmental issues of the African Continent. Rampant clearing of forests and land conversion goes on for agriculture, settlement and fuel needs. [3] Ninety percent of Africa's population requires wood to use as fuel for heating and cooking. As a result, forested areas are decreasing daily, as for example, in the region of equatorial evergreen forests. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, Africa's desertification rate is twice that of the world's. [4]

Deforestation of rainforest Deforestation of Rainforest.jpg
Deforestation of rainforest

The rate of illegal logging, which is another main cause of deforestation, varies from country to country, such as 50% in Cameroon and 80% in Liberia. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, deforestation is primarily caused by the needs of the poor citizens, along with unsupervised logging and mining. In Ethiopia, the main cause is the country's growing population, which induces an increase in agriculture, livestock production, and fuel wood. [5] Low education and little government intervention also contributes to deforestation. Madagascar's forest loss is partially caused by citizens using slash-and-burn techniques after independence from the French. In 2005, Nigeria had the highest rate of deforestation in the world, according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). [6] Deforestation in Nigeria is caused by logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of wood for fuel. According to the gfy, deforestation has wiped out nearly 90% of Africa's forest. West Africa only has 22.8% of its moist forests left, and 81% of Nigeria's old-growth forests disappeared within 15 years. Deforestation also lowers the chance of rainfall; Ethiopia has experienced famine and droughts because of this. 98% of Ethiopia's forests have disappeared over the last 50 years. [7] Within 43 years, Kenya's forest coverage decreased from about 10% to 1.7%. Deforestation in Madagascar has also led to desertification, soil loss, and water source degradation, resulting in the country's inability to provide necessary resources for its growing population. [8] In the last five years, Nigeria lost nearly half of its primary forests.

Ethiopia's government, along with organizations like Farm Africa, is starting to take steps to stop excessive deforestation.

Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood next to Igara Secondary school near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda 05 Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood in near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda 05.jpg
Piles of chopped dry ecalyptus wood next to Igara Secondary school near Butare town in Bushenyi district in Western Uganda 05

Deforestation is an issue, and forests are important in Africa, as populations have relied heavily on them to provide basic needs. Woods are used for shelter, clothing, agricultural elements, and much more. Woodland supplies are also used to create medicines and a wide variety of food. Some of these foods include fruits, nuts, honey, and much more. Wood is crucial for economic gain in Africa, especially in developing countries. Forests also help the environment. It is estimated that the green belt of Africa contains over 1.5 million species. Without the forest habitat to protect the species, the populations are at risk. The livelihoods of millions of people and species are at risk with deforestation. The act is a domino effect that affects multiple aspects of a community, ecosystem, and economy. [9]

Many African nations have begun to implement restoration projects to reverse the effects of deforestation. These projects have been shown to improve the environment in many ways and the livelihood of the people living near them. For example "Reforestation and agroforestry schemes can help, for instance, to sequester carbon, prevent flooding, enhance biodiversity, rehabilitate degraded lands, provide a local energy supply for the rural poor and improve land use and watershed management." [10]

Soil degradation

Sand and water on the side of the road, causing erosion on the environment Sand on roadside 2.jpg
Sand and water on the side of the road, causing erosion on the environment
Plastic bags dumped by the road side in Katete in mbarara district in western Uganda Garbage dumped by the road side in mbarara in western Uganda 03.jpg
Plastic bags dumped by the road side in Katete in mbarara district in western Uganda

The erosion caused by rains, rivers and winds as well as over-use of soils for agriculture and low use of manures have resulted in turning the soils infertile, as for example, in the plains of the Nile and the Orange River. A main cause of soil degradation is lack of manufactured fertilizers being used, since African soil lacks organic sources of nutrients and also dumping of plastic waste such as polythene bags, broken plates, basins, water drums, plastic water bottles and jerrycans on the soils. The increase in population also has led people to rely on cropping as a source of income, but many do not take measures to protect the soil, [11] due to low income. [12] The current methods create too much pressure on other environmental aspects, such as forests, and are not sustainable. [13] There are also ecological causes of the poor soil quality. Much of the soil has rocks or clay from volcanic activity. Other causes include erosion, desertification, and deforestation. Another source of soil degradation is the improper management of waste, lack of facilities and techniques to handle waste lead to the dumping of waste in soil, therefore causes soil degradation by process such as leaching.

Degradation of African soil causes decreased food production, damaging ecological effects, and an overall decrease in the quality of living in Africa. [12] This issue would lessen if fertilizers and other cropping supplies were more affordable and thus used more. [13] The United Nations has commissioned a Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD) to further investigate the causes and state of the soil. Access to information collected is freely available, and it is hoped that awareness will be raised among politicians in threatened areas. [14]

Air pollution

Burning of car tires causing air pollution in Accra Air Pollution in Ghana.jpg
Burning of car tires causing air pollution in Accra

The air in Africa is greatly polluted due to multiple reasons stated below. The primitive method of farming that takes place in most areas in Africa is certainly a causal factor. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 11.3 million hectares of land are being lost annually to agriculture, grazing, uncontrolled burning and fuelwood consumption. [15] Combustion of wood and charcoal are used for cooking [16] and this results to a release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which is a toxic pollutant in the atmosphere. [17] Also, due to the poor supply of power, most homes have to rely on fuel and diesel in generators to keep their electricity running. [18] Air pollution in Africa is coming to the forefront and must not be ignored. For example, in South Africa the mercury levels are severe due to coal combustion and gold mining. Mercury is absorbed from the air into the soil and water. [19] The soil allows the crops to absorb the mercury, which humans ingest. Animals eat the grass which has absorbed the mercury and again humans may ingest these animals. Fish absorb the mercury from the water, humans also ingest the fish and drink the water that have absorbed the mercury. This increases the mercury levels in humans. This can cause serious health risks. [20] [21]

It is expected that Africa could represent the half of the world's pollution emissions by 2030, warns Cathy Liousse director of research of atmospheric sounding of the CNRS, [22] along with many other researchers. According to the report, sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing a fast increasing pollution, derived from many causes, such as burning wood for cooking, open burning of waste, traffic, agri-food and chemical industries, the dust from the Sahara carried by the winds through the Sahel area, all this reinforced by a greater population growth and urbanisation. [23]

The World Health Organization reports of the need to intervene when more than one third of the total Disability Adjusted Life Years [24] was lost as a result of exposure to indoor air pollution in Africa. [18] Fuel is needed to power lights at night. The fuel being burned causes great emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Because of the increased Urbanization in Africa, people are burning more and more fuel and using more vehicles for transportation. The rise in vehicle emissions and the trend towards greater industrialization means the urban air quality in the continent is worsening. [25] This is also the case in many megacities in Nigeria where the key contributors to poor air quality include vehicle emissions, industrial emissions and solid waste burning. [26] Seasonal variations in pollution also exist with the highest levels of air pollution occurring during the dry season (November to March in the north, May to September in the south). [27]

In many countries, the use of leaded gasoline is still widespread, and vehicle emission controls are nonexistent. Indoor air pollution is widespread, mostly from the burning of coal in the kitchen for cooking. [28] Compounds released from fuel stations and nitrogen and hydrocarbon released from airports cause air pollution. Carbon dioxide other greenhouse gases in the air causes an increase of people with respiratory issues. [29]

There is a common relationship between air pollution and population. Africa widely diverse between areas that are overpopulated versus areas that are scarcely populated. In regions where there is little industrial development and few people, air quality is high. Vice versa, in densely populated and industrialized regions the air quality is low. [30] Addressing the air pollution in big cities is often a big priority, even though the continent as a whole produces little air pollutants by international standards. Even so, air pollutants are causing a variety of health and environmental problems. These pollutants are a threat to the population of Africa and the environment they try so hard to sustain. [31]

In 2019, air pollution killed 1.1 million people across Africa, according to a study published in The Lancet Planetary Health in October 2021. [32] More than 350 million African children live in households that use solid fuels, mostly wood and coal, for cooking and heating. The emissions from these solid fuels are the main causes of indoor air pollution. [33]

Climate change

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Africa.[ edit ]
Graph showing temperature change in Africa between 1901 and 2021, with red colour being warmer and blue being colder than average (the average temperature during 1971-2000 is taken as the reference point for these changes). Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png
Graph showing temperature change in Africa between 1901 and 2021, with red colour being warmer and blue being colder than average (the average temperature during 1971–2000 is taken as the reference point for these changes).

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change. [34] [35] [36] Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth". [37] [38] Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security. [39] As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa. [35]

Over the coming decades, warming from climate change is expected across almost all the Earth's surface, and global mean rainfall will increase. [40] Currently, Africa is warming faster than the rest of the world on average. Large portions of the continent may become uninhabitable as a result of the rapid effects of climate change, which would have disastrous effects on human health, food security, and poverty. [41] [42] [43] Regional effects on rainfall in the tropics are expected to be much more spatially variable. The direction of change at any one location is often less certain.

Observed surface temperatures have generally increased by about 1 °C in Africa since the late 19th century to the early 21st century. [44] In the Sahel, the increase has been as much as 3 °C for the minimum temperature at the end of the dry season. [44] Data for temperature and rainfall shows discrepancies from the norm, both in timing and location. [45] [35] [46]

For instance, Kenya has a high vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. The main climate hazards include droughts and floods as rainfall will likely become more intense and less predictable. Climate models predict that temperatures will rise by 0.5 to 2 °C. [47] In the informal urban settlements of Nairobi the urban heat island effect adds to the problem as it creates even warmer ambient temperatures. This is due to home construction materials, lack of ventilation, sparse green space, and poor access to electrical power and other services. [48]

The African Union has put forward 47 goals and corresponding actions in a 2014 draft report to combat and mitigate climate change in Africa. [49] The International Monetary Fund suggested in 2021 that $50 billion might be necessary to cover the costs of climate change adaptation in Africa. [50] [51] [52]

Coastal erosion

Coastal erosion is a notable environmental issue in many regions of Africa, particularly along the West African coast. This process results in the loss of land, damage to infrastructure, and displacement of communities. To address these problems, the West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (WACA) was initiated in 2018, with funding of $594 million from the World Bank through the International Development Association (IDA). Benin and Togo experience an annual coastline loss of approximately 15 meters, with some areas losing up to 30 meters. This erosion has led to the destruction of homes and posed significant risks to lives and investments. WACA has supported about twenty major cross-border infrastructure projects, covering over 42 kilometers with breakwaters, groins, and sand walls. In areas such as Grand-Popo, the sea has receded by 200 meters, creating a new 5.3-kilometer-long beach. [53] The program has safeguarded the lives and livelihoods of 27,000 households (about 145,000 individuals) from flooding, and has improved recreational spaces and artisanal fishing. [54]

Water scarcity

This section is an excerpt from Water scarcity in Africa.[ edit ]

The main causes of water scarcity in Africa are physical and economic water scarcity, rapid population growth, and the effects of climate change on the water cycle. Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. [55] The rainfall in sub-Saharan Africa is highly seasonal and unevenly distributed, leading to frequent floods and droughts. [56]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reported in 2012 that growing water scarcity is now one of the leading challenges for sustainable development. [57] This is because an increasing number of river basins have reached conditions of water scarcity. The reasons for this are the combined demands of agriculture and other sectors. Water scarcity in Africa has several impacts. They range from health, particularly affecting women and children, to education, agricultural productivity and sustainable development. It can also lead to more water conflicts.

Plastic pollution

Share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed Share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed, OWID.svg
Share of plastic waste that is inadequately managed
Garbage and plastic waste in drainage channel in Butare town in Bushenyi District in Western Uganda Garbage and plastic waste in drainage channel in Butare town in Bushenyi District in Western Uganda 02.jpg
Garbage and plastic waste in drainage channel in Butare town in Bushenyi District in Western Uganda

Like in other parts of the developing world, plastic pollution is causing widespread problems such as contamination of waterways, disruption of stormwater management, and increases of disease due to mosquitos and pests living in plastics. [58] Plastic mismanagement is both a combination of cheap supply by all kinds of manufacturers, for example by providing much needed access to water through bottled water and water sachets, and poor management of the waste after use. [59]

Some locations in Africa have also been the sourcing of dumping plastic waste from the Global North. [58] Some governments are responding, and the continent leads the rest of the world in plastic bans which reduced allowed use and manufacture of single use plastics such as plastic bags and food serving tools. [58]

Oil spills

Oil spills have been a recurrent problem in Nigeria's Niger Delta region, as Nigeria's National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) recorded 822 combined oil spills, totalling 28,003 barrels of oil spewed into the environment. The Niger Delta region has solely experienced more than 12,000 oil spill occurrences, half of them were the consequences of tanker accidents and pipeline degradation. [60] The spill incidents caused poisoning in the waterways, lands, and upended farmers’ livelihood from agriculture as well as affected citizens’ lives. A study showed that child and neonatal mortality increased in the wake of the oil-spills crisis. [61] Additionally, oil corporations have been charged with violating Nigerian law by not cleaning up spills within 24 hours. The two largest companies in the Niger Delta, Shell and Eni, were accused by Amnesty International of being careless in their handling of regional oil disasters. The campaign group said that the businesses' "irresponsible response" to oil spills was the reason why the environmental calamity in the Niger Delta had gotten worse. But both businesses have now denied this assertion.

[62]

Biodiversity loss

Africa’s biodiversity is considered a crucial pillar representing it as the continent hosts the largest biodiversity percentage of 22% including the megafauna, avian species, and special plant species. [63] Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands rank among the most vulnerable regions of Africa, according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). IPBES estimates that one million species are in danger of going extinct and that many more will do so in the ensuing decades. It is estimated that by the end of the century, misuse and ecological degradation will result in the extinction of 20–30% of lake species, as well as 50–60% of African bird and mammal species, fisheries, and wildlife [64] . Factors that contribute in biodiversity loss include climate change and greenhouse gas emissions that exacerbate the hotspots across Africa; as the continent comprises eight hotspots out of 36 on earth including: Succulent Karoo, Horn of Africa, Madagascar, Guinean Forests Of West Africa, Coastal forests of eastern Africa, Afromontane, Cape Floristic Region, and Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot. [65] Other man-augmented factors include population growth, urbanization, illegal trafficking and poaching. A regional strategy was developed by the East Africa Community members and Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife and Antiquities of Uganda to combat poaching and illegal trafficking of wildlife, which was built on six pillars [66] :

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology, meteorology, mathematics and geography to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental degradation</span> Any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. The environmental degradation process amplifies the impact of environmental issues which leave lasting impacts on the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land degradation</span> Gradual destruction of land

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the or biophysical or biochemical environment is affected by a combination of natural or human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Colombia</span>

Environmentally, Colombia is a mega-diverse country from its natural land terrain to its biological wildlife. Its biodiversity is a result of its geographical location and elevation. It is the fourth largest South American country and only country in South America to have coasts on the Pacific and Caribbean Sea. Colombia's terrain can be divided into six main natural zones: The Caribbean, the Pacific, The Orinoco region, The Amazonia region, the Andean region, and the Insular region. 52.2% of the environment is predominately the Andes, Amazon, and Pacific Basins, followed by the Orinoco basin 13.9%, the Andes and the Caribbean. The Tropical Andes, Choco, and the Caribbean are considered biodiversity hotspots which puts these areas at high risk of concentration of colonizing activities. Colombia host over 1800 bird species and at least one new species are detected every year. Decades of civil war and political unrest have impeded biological and environmental research in Colombia. The political unrest in Colombia catalyzes the alteration of land patterns through the cultivation of coca and opium crops, the redirection of extractive activities, and land abandonment in some areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Indonesia</span>

Environmental issues in Indonesia are associated with the country's high population density and rapid industrialisation, and they are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels, and an under-resourced governance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Nepal</span>

Environmental issues in Nepal include a number of issues, such as deforestation, climate change, energy and species conservation. Many of these issues have been precipitated by rapid industrialization without major environmental regulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological resilience</span> Capacity of ecosystems to resist and recover from change

In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and subsequently recovering. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as deforestation, fracking of the ground for oil extraction, pesticide sprayed in soil, and the introduction of exotic plant or animal species. Disturbances of sufficient magnitude or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach a threshold beyond which a different regime of processes and structures predominates. When such thresholds are associated with a critical or bifurcation point, these regime shifts may also be referred to as critical transitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Though some pastoralism is environmentally positive, modern animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of the energy industry</span>

The environmental impact of the energy industry is significant, as energy and natural resource consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an environmental impact. Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. Scientific consensus on some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are considered to be increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, causing a warming effect, global changes to land surface, such as deforestation, for a warming effect, increasing concentrations of aerosols, mainly for a cooling effect.

There are a range of environmental issues in Southern Africa, such as climate change, land, water, deforestation, land degradation, and pollution. The Southern Africa region itself, except for South Africa, produces less carbon emissions but is a recipient of climate change impacts characterized by changes in precipitation, extreme weather events and hot temperatures. Through an attempt of keeping up with the developing world and trying to meet the high demands of the growing population, Southern Africa has exhausted its many resources resulting in severe environmental damage. Southern Africa's log, and produce are the cores of their economy, and this region has become dependent on these resources. The continuous depleting and improper treatment of their natural resources have led Southern Africa to the state where they are.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation and climate change</span> Relationship between deforestation and global warming

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects the health of forests. Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal mining</span> Mining without state permission

Illegal mining is mining activity that is undertaken without state permission. Illegal mining is the extraction of precious metals without following the proper procedures to participate in legal mining activity. These procedures include permits and licenses for exploration of the land, mining and transportation. 

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Sri Lanka</span>

Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves, coral reefs and soil. Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts. Overfishing and insufficient waste management, especially in rural areas, leads to environmental pollution. Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise.

The desert-covered Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the geographically largest country in the Middle East. Moreover, it accounts for 65% of the overall population of the GCC countries and 42% of its GDP. Saudi Arabia does not have a strong history in environmentalism. Thus, as the number of population increases and the industrial activity grows, environmental issues pose a real challenge to the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Indonesia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Indonesia

Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Nigeria</span> Emissions, impacts and response of Nigeria related to climate change

Climate change in Nigeria is evident from temperature increase, rainfall variability. It is also reflected in drought, desertification, rising sea levels, erosion, floods, thunderstorms, bush fires, landslides, land degradation, more frequent, extreme weather conditions and loss of biodiversity. All of which continues to negatively affect human and animal life and also the ecosystems in Nigeria. Although, depending on the location, regions experience climate change with significant higher temperatures during the dry seasons while rainfalls during rainy seasons help keep the temperature at milder levels. The effects of climate change prompted the World Meteorological Organization, in its 40th Executive Council 1988, to establish a new international scientific assessment panel to be called the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The 2007 IPCC's fourth and final Assessment Report (AR4) revealed that there is a considerable threat of climate change that requires urgent global attention. The report further attributed the present global warming to largely anthropogenic practices. The Earth is almost at a point of no return as it faces environmental threats which include atmospheric and marine pollution, global warming, ozone depletion, the dangers of pollution by nuclear and other hazardous substances, and the extinction of various wildlife species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firewood in Nigeria</span> Deforestation and use of fuel wood in Nigeria

In Nigeria, firewood is a traditional source of energy for domestic and commercial use. Fuel wood is derived from cutting and burning wood materials such as logs and twigs. It has long been prevalent among rural and sometimes urban dwellers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fruit production and deforestation</span>

Fruit production is a major driver of deforestation around the world. In tropical countries, forests are often cleared to plant fruit trees, such as bananas, pineapples, and mangos. This deforestation is having a number of negative environmental impacts, including biodiversity loss, ecosystem disruption, and land degradation.

References

  1. ↑ "Types of Environmental Issues: Meaning, Pollution, Videos, Examples". Toppr-guides. 8 March 2018. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  2. ↑ Obi, Cyril (2005). Environmental movements in sub-Saharan Africa : a political ecology of power and conflict. UN Research Institute for Social Development. OCLC   153316952.
  3. ↑ Bosetti, Valentina; Lubowski, Ruben, eds. (30 June 2010). Deforestation and Climate Change. Edward Elgar Publishing. doi:10.4337/9780857937179. ISBN   978-0-85793-717-9.
  4. ↑ Banda, Jr, Sam (11 June 2008). "Deforestation reaches worrying level – UN". africanews.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2008.
  5. ↑ Roe, Stephanie; Streck, Charlotte; Beach, Robert; Busch, Jonah; Chapman, Melissa; Daioglou, Vassilis; Deppermann, Andre; Doelman, Jonathan; Emmet-Booth, Jeremy; Engelmann, Jens; Fricko, Oliver; Frischmann, Chad; Funk, Jason; Grassi, Giacomo; Griscom, Bronson (December 2021). "Land-based measures to mitigate climate change: Potential and feasibility by country". Global Change Biology. 27 (23): 6025–6058. doi:10.1111/gcb.15873. ISSN   1354-1013. PMC   9293189 . PMID   34636101.
  6. ↑ "Deforestation statistics for Nigeria". Mongabay. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
  7. ↑ Wana, Firew; Senapathy, Marisennayya (25 October 2022). NGO European Scientific Platform (ed.). Small-scale Irrigation Utilization by Farmers in Southern Ethiopia. Wolaita Sodo University. Primedia eLaunch LLC. doi:10.36074/ssiubfise-monograph.2022. ISBN   979-8-88831-317-6.
  8. ↑ Oyediji, Olubukola Tolulope; Adenika, O.A (21 October 2022). "Forest Degradation and Deforestation in Nigeria; Poverty Link". International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Analysis. 05 (10): 2837–2880. doi: 10.47191/ijmra/v5-i10-35 . ISSN   2643-9840.
  9. ↑ Hillstrom & Hillstrom The Worlds environments. a continental overview of environmental issues 2003 pg. 85–86
  10. ↑ Favretto, Nicola; Dougill, Andrew; Stringer, Lindsay; Afionis, Stavros; Quinn, Claire (12 March 2018). "Links between Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Development in Land Policy and Ecosystem Restoration Projects: Lessons from South Africa". Sustainability. 10 (3): 779. doi: 10.3390/su10030779 . ISSN   2071-1050.
  11. ↑ "IFA : International Fertilizer Industry Association – Soil Degradation in Africa IFA". fertilizer.org. IFA. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  12. 1 2 "Land and Environmental Degradation and Desertification in Africa". FAO. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  13. 1 2 "IFA : International Fertilizer Industry Association – Soil Degradation in Africa / SUSTAINABILITY / HomePage / IFA". fertilizer.org. IFA. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  14. ↑ "Soil Degradation". Goodplanet.info. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  15. ↑ Lanly, J.P. (1982) Tropical Forest Resources. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy: United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/an778e/an778e00.pdf
  16. ↑ Wood, T S; Baldwin, S (1985). "Fuelwood and Charcoal Use in Developing Countries". Annual Review of Energy . 10: 407–29. doi: 10.1146/annurev.eg.10.110185.002203 .
  17. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z (2008). "On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (3): L03809. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.3809J. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031101 . S2CID   16440166.
  18. 1 2 World Health Organization (2013). Regional burden of disease due to indoor air pollution. Retrieved from
  19. ↑ Cukrowska, Ewa M.; Yalala, Bongani N.; Tutu, Hlanganani; Chimuka, Luke (August 2017). "Spatial Distribution and Source Identification of Mercury in Dust Affected by Gold Mining in Johannesburg, South Africa". Proceedings of the International Conference of Recent Trends in Environmental Science and Engineering (RTESE'17). Avestia Publishing. doi:10.11159/rtese17.104. ISBN   978-1-927877-36-4.
  20. ↑ Lusilao-Makiese, J.G; Cukrowska, E.M; Tessier, E; Amouroux, D; Weiersbye, I (2013). "The impact of post gold mining on mercury pollution in the West Rand region, Gauteng, South Africa". Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 134: 111–9. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2013.08.010.
  21. ↑ Papu-Zamxaka, Vathiswa; Mathee, Angela; Harpham, Trudy; Barnes, Brendon; Röllin, Halina; Lyons, Michal; Jordaan, Wikus; Cloete, Marthinus (2010). "Elevated mercury exposure in communities living alongside the Inanda Dam, South Africa" (PDF). J. Environ. Monit. 12 (2): 472–7. doi:10.1039/B917452D. hdl: 2263/15981 . PMID   20145889.
  22. ↑ Liousse, C; Assamoi, E; Criqui, P; Granier, C; Rosset, R (1 March 2014). "Explosive growth in African combustion emissions from 2005 to 2030". Environmental Research Letters. 9 (3): 035003. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/035003. ISSN   1748-9326.
  23. ↑ Mariama Darame (29 November 2019). "En Afrique de l'Ouest, une pollution mortelle mais d'ampleur inconnue". Le Monde (in French).
  24. ↑ World Health Organization (2013). Mental Health – DALYs/YLDs definition. Retrieved from
  25. ↑ Guide on Ambient Air Quality Legislation - Air Pollution Series. United Nations Environment Programme. May 2023. doi:10.59117/20.500.11822/42536. ISBN   978-92-807-4029-5.
  26. ↑ "Lagos Air Quality Index (AQI) and Nigeria Air Pollution | IQAir". www.iqair.com. 22 June 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
  27. ↑ "Nigeria General Health Risks: Air Pollution".
  28. ↑ "Air Quality in Africa". Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  29. ↑ Scorgie, Yvanne. "Air Quality and Regulation". NACA. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  30. ↑ Kang, Hanqing; Zhu, Bin; van der A, Ronald J.; Zhu, Chunmao; de Leeuw, Gerrit; Hou, Xuewei; Gao, Jinhui (January 2019). "Natural and anthropogenic contributions to long-term variations of SO2, NO2, CO, and AOD over East China". Atmospheric Research. 215: 284–293. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.09.012. ISSN   0169-8095.
  31. ↑ Hillstrom & Hillstrom The Worlds environments. a continental overview of environmental issues 2003 pp. 207–208
  32. ↑ Fisher, Samantha; Bellinger, David C.; Cropper, Maureen L.; Kumar, Pushpam; Binagwaho, Agnes; Koudenoukpo, Juliette Biao; Park, Yongjoon; Taghian, Gabriella; Landrigan, Philip J. (2021). "Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (10): e681–e688. doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00201-1 . PMID   34627472. S2CID   238580295.
  33. ↑ Andrew Mambondiyani (25 October 2021). "Air Pollution Killed a Million People in Africa in 2019". Eos. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
  34. ↑ Schneider, S. H.; et al. (2007). "19.3.3 Regional vulnerabilities". In Parry, M. L.; et al. (eds.). Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN   978-0-521-88010-7. Archived from the original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  35. 1 2 3 Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf
  36. ↑ Kendon, Elizabeth J.; Stratton, Rachel A.; Tucker, Simon; Marsham, John H.; Berthou, Ségolène; Rowell, David P.; Senior, Catherine A. (2019). "Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1794. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1794K. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9. PMC   6478940 . PMID   31015416.
  37. ↑ "More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says". The Weather Channel. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  38. ↑ United Nations, UNEP (2017). "Responding to climate change". UNEP – UN Environment Programme. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  39. ↑ Boko, M. (2007). "Executive summary". In Parry, M. L.; et al. (eds.). Chapter 9: Africa. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN   978-0-521-88010-7. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  40. ↑ IPCC (2018). "Global Warming of 1.5°C: an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty". IPCC. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
  41. ↑ European Investment Bank (6 July 2022). EIB Group Sustainability Report 2021. European Investment Bank. ISBN   978-92-861-5237-5.
  42. ↑ "Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa". public.wmo.int. 18 October 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
  43. ↑ "Global warming: severe consequences for Africa". Africa Renewal. 7 December 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
  44. 1 2 Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa. Marseille: IRD éditions. 2017. ISBN   978-2-7099-2424-5. OCLC   1034784045. Impr. Jouve.
  45. ↑ Collins, Jennifer M. (15 July 2011). "Temperature Variability over Africa". Journal of Climate. 24 (14): 3649–3666. Bibcode:2011JCli...24.3649C. doi: 10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 .
  46. ↑ Conway, Declan; Persechino, Aurelie; Ardoin-Bardin, Sandra; Hamandawana, Hamisai; Dieulin, Claudine; Mahé, Gil (February 2009). "Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century". Journal of Hydrometeorology. 10 (1): 41–59. Bibcode:2009JHyMe..10...41C. doi: 10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 .
  47. ↑ World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. "Kenya (Vulnerability)" . Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  48. ↑ Hirch, Aurther (November 2017). "Effects of climate change likely to be more deadly in poor African settlements".
  49. ↑ AFRICAN STRATEGY ON CLIMATE CHANGE (PDF). African Union. 2014.
  50. ↑ European Investment Bank (19 October 2022). Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times. European Investment Bank. ISBN   978-92-861-5382-2.
  51. ↑ "Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2021" (PDF). UN.
  52. ↑ United Nations. "Population growth, environmental degradation and climate change". United Nations. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  53. ↑ "World Bank Group - International Development, Poverty, & Sustainability". World Bank. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
  54. ↑ "The Tamed Sea: An Alliance Restored With Coastal Communities". World Bank. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
  55. ↑ "Water Scarcity | Threats | WWF". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  56. ↑ "International Decade for Action: Water for Life 2005-2015" . Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  57. ↑ FAO (2012). Coping with water scarcity - An action framework for agriculture and food security, FAO Rome.
  58. 1 2 3 Lerner, Sharon (19 April 2020). "Africa's Exploding Plastic Nightmare: As Africa Drowns in Garbage, the Plastics Business Keeps Booming". The Intercept. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  59. ↑ Lerner, Sharon (19 April 2020). "Africa's Exploding Plastic Nightmare: As Africa Drowns in Garbage, the Plastics Business Keeps Booming". The Intercept. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  60. ↑ "5 Biggest Environmental Issues In Africa In 2024". EARTH.ORG. 25 February 2024.
  61. ↑ "The human health implications of crude oil spills in the Niger delta, Nigeria: An interpretation of published studies". National Center for Biotechnology Information.
  62. ↑ Nguyen, Lei (25 February 2024). "5 Biggest Environmental Issues In Africa In 2024". Earth.Org. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  63. ↑ "Biodiversity". African Development Bank Group .
  64. ↑ Nguyen, Lei (25 February 2024). "5 Biggest Environmental Issues In Africa In 2024". Earth.Org. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  65. ↑ "The Eight Biodiversity Hotspots Of Africa". WorldAtlas .
  66. ↑ "EAC STRATEGY TO COMBAT POACHING AND ILLEGAL TRADE AND TRAFFICKING OF WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE PRODUCTS" (PDF). Retrieved 10 July 2024.


This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.