Morocco is the northwesternmost country which spans from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean on the north and the west respectively, into large mountainous areas in the interior, to the Sahara desert in the far south. Morocco is a Northern African country, located in the extreme northwest of Africa on the edge of continental Europe. The Strait of Gibraltar separates Spain from Morocco with a 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) span of water. Morocco borders the North Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the western Mediterranean Sea to the north, and has borders with Algeria and disputed Western Sahara.
The terrain of Morocco is largely mountainous. The Atlas Mountains stretch from the central north to the southwest. It expands to about 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) and is the dorsal spine of the country. To the north of the Atlas Mountains, there are the Rif Mountains, a chain that makes part of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Andalusia, Spain. The massive range expands to about 250 kilometres (160 mi) from Tangier in the west to Nador eastward.
In the west of the country, along the Atlantic coast, the Moroccan Plateau stretches from Tangier to Lagouira, about 2,310 kilometres (1,440 mi) long, and get inward to Saiss Plains near Fes and Tansift-Alhaouz near Marrakech. These vast plains promotes fertile agricultural lands and support 15% of the local economy.
In the extreme southeast of the country, the lands are arid due to their proximity to the Sahara Desert. Palm trees oasis are developed in many regions, notably in Figuig and Zagora.
32°00′N5°00′W / 32.000°N 5.000°W
Area:
total: 446,550 km² (excluding Western Sahara), 712,550 km² (Morocco and Western Sahara combined)
land: 446,302 km² (or 712,200 km²)
water: 250 km²
Area – comparative: Morocco without Western Sahara is slightly larger than California; slightly larger than Newfoundland and Labrador; slightly more than half the size of New South Wales province of Australia; slightly less than twice the size of the United Kingdom.
Morocco and Western Sahara combined are slightly larger than Texas.
Land boundaries:
total: 2,018.9 km
border countries: Algeria 1 559 km, Free Zone (de facto border along the Moroccan Western Sahara Wall) 2200 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km
Coastline: 1835 km
2945 km (including the coast of Western Sahara)
Maritime claims:
Territorial sea:12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
Contiguous zone:24 nmi (44.4 km; 27.6 mi)
Exclusive economic zone:575,230 km2 (222,100 sq mi) with 200 nmi (370.4 km)
Continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
Morocco's climate can be divided into two parts: The northwest and the southeast. In the southeast, the climate is arid and poorly populated. The northwest has a mild climate, and 95% of the Moroccan population lives in these regions.
The largely populated areas of the northwest of the country mostly have a Mediterranean climate, but since the country is heavily mountainous, continental and alpine influence is evident, as well as the oceanic influence along the Atlantic coastline. And finally, the semi-arid lands, that cover few regions in the northeast, the central-south, and the southwest.
Along the Mediterranean coast, the climate is typically Mediterranean and supports all types of typical Mediterranean vegetation. The summers are moderately hot and the winters are mild. Further away from the coast, into the Rif Mountain range, the climate starts to become more continental in character, with colder winters and hotter summers. At elevations above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the climate is alpine with warm summers and cold winters. Rainfall is much higher on the west side than it is on the east side. The average annual precipitation is between 600 and 1,500 mm (24 and 59 in), and 300 and 700 mm (12 and 28 in) respectively. Snow is abundant at higher elevations.
Along the Atlantic coast, the climate is the Mediterranean with oceanic influence. The imprint of the oceanic climate differs along the coastline from region to region. It is generally presented from Asilah to Essaouira. The summers are warm to moderately hot, and winters are cooler than on the Mediterranean coast. Further away from the coastal lands, into the Atlas Mountain range, the climate starts to become more continental in character, with colder winters and hotter summers. At elevations above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the climate is typically alpine, with warm summers and cold winters. Rainfall is generally high. The average annual precipitations is between 500 and 1,800 mm (20 and 71 in) on the north, but as you move southward, the average drops by about 100 to 200 mm (3.9 to 7.9 in). Snow is abundant at higher elevations. There are two ski stations, one in the middle-Atlas Mischliffen, and the other in the High-Atlas Oukaïmeden.
The southern regions of the northwest are semi-arid. Rainfall is lower, and is between 250 and 350 mm (9.8 and 13.8 in) annually. Although temperature ranges generally do not change in comparison with the upper provinces, a slight increase in high averages is not to be dismissed. Largely due to the lower latitudes where they fall.
Typical cities with such climate are Agadir and Marrakesh.
The disputed Western Sahara region features a hot desert climate, but temperatures are more moderate along the coast.
Climate data for Casablanca (1981–2010) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 31.1 (88.0) | 29.4 (84.9) | 32.2 (90.0) | 32.8 (91.0) | 36.6 (97.9) | 37.8 (100.0) | 40.1 (104.2) | 39.5 (103.1) | 40.5 (104.9) | 36.6 (97.9) | 34.7 (94.5) | 30.3 (86.5) | 40.5 (104.9) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 17.3 (63.1) | 18.0 (64.4) | 19.6 (67.3) | 20.3 (68.5) | 21.9 (71.4) | 24.1 (75.4) | 25.9 (78.6) | 26.3 (79.3) | 25.8 (78.4) | 23.9 (75.0) | 21.0 (69.8) | 18.7 (65.7) | 21.9 (71.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.8 (55.0) | 13.8 (56.8) | 15.3 (59.5) | 16.4 (61.5) | 18.5 (65.3) | 21.2 (70.2) | 23.0 (73.4) | 23.4 (74.1) | 22.4 (72.3) | 20.0 (68.0) | 16.7 (62.1) | 14.5 (58.1) | 18.2 (64.8) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 8.3 (46.9) | 9.5 (49.1) | 11.0 (51.8) | 12.5 (54.5) | 15.0 (59.0) | 18.2 (64.8) | 20.1 (68.2) | 20.5 (68.9) | 19.1 (66.4) | 16.1 (61.0) | 12.5 (54.5) | 10.2 (50.4) | 14.4 (57.9) |
Record low °C (°F) | −1.5 (29.3) | −0.7 (30.7) | 2.3 (36.1) | 5.0 (41.0) | 7.4 (45.3) | 10.0 (50.0) | 13.0 (55.4) | 13.0 (55.4) | 10.0 (50.0) | 7.0 (44.6) | 4.6 (40.3) | −2.7 (27.1) | −2.7 (27.1) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 64.4 (2.54) | 54.7 (2.15) | 36.6 (1.44) | 31.8 (1.25) | 13.1 (0.52) | 3.0 (0.12) | 0.9 (0.04) | 0.5 (0.02) | 9.8 (0.39) | 37.0 (1.46) | 76.8 (3.02) | 69.7 (2.74) | 398.3 (15.68) |
Average rainy days | 9 | 9 | 7 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 72 |
Average relative humidity (%) | 83 | 83 | 82 | 80 | 79 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 82 | 82 | 84 | 82 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 203.0 | 200.0 | 246.8 | 269.4 | 305.4 | 296.0 | 305.1 | 297.2 | 263.1 | 240.8 | 208.0 | 195.2 | 3,030 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization [1] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Pogoda.ru.net (humidity, rain days and extremes) [2] |
Climate data for Fez (Fès–Saïs Airport), altitude: 579 m (1,900 ft) 1981–2010 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 25.0 (77.0) | 30.5 (86.9) | 33.3 (91.9) | 37.0 (98.6) | 40.8 (105.4) | 44.0 (111.2) | 46.7 (116.1) | 44.4 (111.9) | 41.7 (107.1) | 37.5 (99.5) | 31.2 (88.2) | 27.0 (80.6) | 46.7 (116.1) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 15.4 (59.7) | 17.0 (62.6) | 19.8 (67.6) | 21.2 (70.2) | 25.0 (77.0) | 30.4 (86.7) | 34.7 (94.5) | 34.2 (93.6) | 30.3 (86.5) | 25.4 (77.7) | 19.9 (67.8) | 16.5 (61.7) | 24.1 (75.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.3 (48.7) | 10.7 (51.3) | 13.1 (55.6) | 14.5 (58.1) | 17.8 (64.0) | 22.4 (72.3) | 26.1 (79.0) | 25.9 (78.6) | 22.8 (73.0) | 18.7 (65.7) | 13.9 (57.0) | 10.8 (51.4) | 17.2 (63.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.2 (37.8) | 4.5 (40.1) | 6.3 (43.3) | 7.8 (46.0) | 10.7 (51.3) | 14.4 (57.9) | 17.5 (63.5) | 17.6 (63.7) | 15.4 (59.7) | 11.9 (53.4) | 8.0 (46.4) | 5.1 (41.2) | 10.2 (50.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | −8.2 (17.2) | −4.9 (23.2) | −2.5 (27.5) | −0.5 (31.1) | 0.0 (32.0) | 4.9 (40.8) | 8.5 (47.3) | 9.2 (48.6) | 5.9 (42.6) | 0.0 (32.0) | −1.4 (29.5) | −5.0 (23.0) | −8.2 (17.2) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 55.7 (2.19) | 55.8 (2.20) | 52.3 (2.06) | 57.2 (2.25) | 33.9 (1.33) | 10.6 (0.42) | 1.0 (0.04) | 4.5 (0.18) | 18.9 (0.74) | 50.1 (1.97) | 61.2 (2.41) | 69.2 (2.72) | 470.4 (18.52) |
Average rainy days | 12.1 | 13.2 | 13.5 | 13.5 | 10.2 | 5.3 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 4.7 | 9.1 | 12.7 | 12.1 | 109.8 |
Average snowy days | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 210.6 | 201.1 | 244.0 | 246.5 | 278.0 | 315.0 | 338.0 | 320.4 | 382.5 | 245.5 | 205.2 | 199.8 | 3,186.6 |
Percent possible sunshine | 60 | 55 | 58 | 62 | 64 | 71 | 79 | 77 | 75 | 64 | 60 | 60 | 65 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization, [3] NOAA (precipitation days 1961–1990) [4] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Meoweather.com, [5] Voodoo skies for extremes [6] Weather Atlas [7] |
Climate data for Marrakesh, Morocco (Menara International Airport) 1981–2010, extremes 1900–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 30.1 (86.2) | 34.3 (93.7) | 37.0 (98.6) | 39.6 (103.3) | 44.4 (111.9) | 46.9 (116.4) | 49.6 (121.3) | 48.6 (119.5) | 44.8 (112.6) | 38.7 (101.7) | 35.2 (95.4) | 30.0 (86.0) | 49.6 (121.3) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 18.6 (65.5) | 20.5 (68.9) | 23.5 (74.3) | 25.0 (77.0) | 28.3 (82.9) | 32.8 (91.0) | 37.2 (99.0) | 36.6 (97.9) | 32.5 (90.5) | 27.9 (82.2) | 22.9 (73.2) | 19.6 (67.3) | 27.1 (80.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.2 (54.0) | 14.2 (57.6) | 17.0 (62.6) | 18.4 (65.1) | 21.3 (70.3) | 25.1 (77.2) | 28.9 (84.0) | 28.6 (83.5) | 25.6 (78.1) | 21.6 (70.9) | 16.8 (62.2) | 13.5 (56.3) | 20.3 (68.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 5.8 (42.4) | 8.0 (46.4) | 10.4 (50.7) | 11.9 (53.4) | 14.4 (57.9) | 17.5 (63.5) | 20.5 (68.9) | 20.6 (69.1) | 18.7 (65.7) | 15.3 (59.5) | 10.7 (51.3) | 7.3 (45.1) | 13.4 (56.1) |
Record low °C (°F) | −2.3 (27.9) | −3.0 (26.6) | 0.4 (32.7) | 2.8 (37.0) | 6.8 (44.2) | 9.0 (48.2) | 10.4 (50.7) | 6.0 (42.8) | 10.0 (50.0) | 1.1 (34.0) | 0.0 (32.0) | −1.6 (29.1) | −3.0 (26.6) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 29.5 (1.16) | 29.6 (1.17) | 36.6 (1.44) | 24.4 (0.96) | 10.5 (0.41) | 4.0 (0.16) | 2.3 (0.09) | 2.7 (0.11) | 9.7 (0.38) | 17.5 (0.69) | 28.7 (1.13) | 24.6 (0.97) | 220.3 (8.67) |
Average precipitation days | 7.6 | 6.8 | 7.5 | 7.7 | 4.8 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 2.8 | 5.5 | 6.6 | 6.5 | 58.8 |
Average relative humidity (%) | 65 | 66 | 61 | 60 | 58 | 55 | 47 | 47 | 52 | 59 | 62 | 65 | 58 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 230.1 | 216.5 | 252.8 | 270.2 | 303.1 | 359.7 | 330.4 | 315.1 | 268.8 | 251.5 | 228.9 | 226.6 | 3,253.7 |
Percent possible sunshine | 71 | 68 | 67 | 65 | 66 | 75 | 77 | 78 | 73 | 72 | 65 | 71 | 71 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization, [8] NOAA (precipitation days 1961–1990), [9] Weather Atlas (percent sunshine) [10] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (record highs for February, April, May, September and November, and humidity), [11] Meteo Climat (record highs and record lows for June, July and August only) [12] |
Climate data for Ouarzazate (1981–2010, extremes 1941–1963 and 1965–present) [lower-alpha 1] | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 26.6 (79.9) | 29.8 (85.6) | 32.0 (89.6) | 34.8 (94.6) | 39.2 (102.6) | 43.6 (110.5) | 43.4 (110.1) | 44.0 (111.2) | 43.2 (109.8) | 34.9 (94.8) | 30.5 (86.9) | 27.0 (80.6) | 44.0 (111.2) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 16.8 (62.2) | 19.1 (66.4) | 22.6 (72.7) | 25.9 (78.6) | 29.8 (85.6) | 34.9 (94.8) | 38.2 (100.8) | 37.1 (98.8) | 32.8 (91.0) | 27.0 (80.6) | 21.5 (70.7) | 17.4 (63.3) | 26.9 (80.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.4 (48.9) | 12.0 (53.6) | 15.5 (59.9) | 18.7 (65.7) | 22.5 (72.5) | 27.1 (80.8) | 30.3 (86.5) | 29.4 (84.9) | 25.5 (77.9) | 20.1 (68.2) | 14.4 (57.9) | 10.4 (50.7) | 19.6 (67.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.0 (35.6) | 4.8 (40.6) | 8.4 (47.1) | 11.5 (52.7) | 15.1 (59.2) | 19.3 (66.7) | 22.5 (72.5) | 21.7 (71.1) | 18.1 (64.6) | 13.1 (55.6) | 7.3 (45.1) | 3.3 (37.9) | 12.3 (54.1) |
Record low °C (°F) | −7.0 (19.4) | −5.4 (22.3) | −2.0 (28.4) | −1.0 (30.2) | 3.6 (38.5) | 7.6 (45.7) | 13.0 (55.4) | 12.6 (54.7) | 9.0 (48.2) | 4.0 (39.2) | −2.6 (27.3) | −4.9 (23.2) | −7.0 (19.4) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 8.6 (0.34) | 18.4 (0.72) | 13.5 (0.53) | 7.0 (0.28) | 4.9 (0.19) | 6.7 (0.26) | 3.0 (0.12) | 9.6 (0.38) | 11.3 (0.44) | 15.2 (0.60) | 10.1 (0.40) | 12.7 (0.50) | 120.9 (4.76) |
Average precipitation days | 2.9 | 2.8 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 3.3 | 4.9 | 3.4 | 3.8 | 2.4 | 32.9 |
Average relative humidity (%) | 54 | 46 | 42 | 38 | 33 | 27 | 22 | 27 | 34 | 42 | 61 | 64 | 41 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 261.8 | 251.5 | 291.7 | 317.8 | 343.2 | 336.7 | 316.3 | 294.9 | 273.2 | 273.1 | 256.5 | 250.3 | 3,467 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization, [13] NOAA (precipitation days 1961–1990) [14] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (record highs for February, May, July, August, and November, record lows, and humidity) [15] Meteo Climat (all other record highs and record lows for June, July, September and October only) [16] |
Climate change is expected to significantly impact Morocco on multiple dimensions, similar to other countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. As a coastal country with hot and arid climates, environmental impacts from climate change are likely to be wide and varied. Analysis of these environmental changes on the economy of Morocco are expected to create challenges at all levels of the economy. The main effects will be felt in the agricultural systems and fisheries which employ half of the population, and account for 14% of GDP. In addition, because 60% of the population and most of the industrial activity are on the coast, sea level rise is a major threat to key economic forces. Morocco’s average temperatures have increased by 0.2 °C per decade since the 1960s. [17] Morocco is particularly susceptible to heat waves, droughts and floods. [17] [18]
Morocco ratified the Paris Agreement in 2015. Its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) aimed at reducing its greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 17% by 2030 compared to business-as-usual (BAU), with the possibility of a reduction of 32% conditional on receiving international support. [17] In June 2021, Morocco submitted an updated NDC with more ambitious targets: reduce GHGs by 18.3% by 2030 compared to BAU, with a reduction of 45.5% conditional on receiving international support. [19] [20] Morocco’s contribution to global GHGs is very small (about 0.18%) and majority of GHGs come from the energy sector. [19] As of the 2023 Climate Change Performance Index, Morocco was ranked seventh in preparedness for climate change. [21]As of 2020, Morocco has been hit with unseasonal heatwaves [22] [23]
The northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains. The northern mountains are geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes.
Morocco occupies a strategic location along the Strait of Gibraltar, the waterway connecting the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean.
Elevation extremes:
Lowest point: Sebkha Tah −55 m
Highest point: Toubkal mountain 4,165 m
Longest river: Draa River (1,100 km)
Natural resources: Phosphates, Iron ore, Manganese, Lead, Zinc, Fish, Salt
Land use:
Arable land: 17.5%
Permanent crops: 2.9%
Permanent pastures: 47.1%
Forests: 11.5%
Other: 21.61% (2011)
Irrigated land: 14,850 km² (2004)
Total renewable water resources: 29 km3 (2011)
Natural hazards: periodic droughts
Land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters.
Morocco is party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
This is a list of the extreme points of Morocco, the points that are farther north, east or west than any other location, excluding the disputed Western Sahara area.
Africa is a continent comprising 63 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth's surface. Within its regular outline, it comprises an area of 30,368,609 km2 (11,725,385 sq mi), excluding adjacent islands. Its highest mountain is Kilimanjaro; its largest lake is Lake Victoria.
The Faroe Islands are an island group consisting of eighteen islands between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about half-way between Iceland and Norway. Its coordinates are 62°N7°W. It is 1,393 square kilometres in area, and includes small lakes and rivers, but no major ones. There are 1,117 kilometres of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country.
Spain is a country located in southwestern Europe occupying most of the Iberian Peninsula. It also includes a small exclave inside France called Llívia, as well as the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean 108 km (67 mi) off northwest Africa, and five places of sovereignty on and off the coast of North Africa: Ceuta, Melilla, Islas Chafarinas, Peñón de Alhucemas, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera.
Western Sahara is a territory in Northern Africa, bordered by the North Atlantic Ocean, Morocco proper, Algeria, and Mauritania. Geographic coordinates: 24°30′N13°00′W
Algeria comprises 2,381,740 square kilometres (919,590 sq mi) of land, more than 80% of which is desert, in North Africa, between Morocco and Tunisia. It is the largest country in Africa. Its Arabic name, Al Jazair, is believed to derive from the rocky islands along the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea. The northern portion, an area of mountains, valleys, and plateaus between the Mediterranean and the Sahara Desert, forms an integral part of the section of North Africa known as the Maghreb. This area includes Morocco, Tunisia, and the northwestern portion of Libya known historically as Tripolitania.
The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb in North Africa. It separates the Sahara Desert from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; the name "Atlantic" is derived from the mountain range, which stretches around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) through Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The range's highest peak is Toubkal, which is in central Morocco, with an elevation of 4,167 metres (13,671 ft). The Atlas Mountains are primarily inhabited by Berber populations.
Tunisia is a country in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, having a western border with Algeria (965 km) and south-eastern border with Libya (459 km) where the width of land tapers to the south-west into the Sahara. The country has north, east and complex east-to-north coasts including the curved Gulf of Gabès, which forms the western part of Africa's Gulf of Sidra. Most of this greater gulf forms the main coast of Libya including the city of Sirte which shares its root name. The country's geographic coordinates are 34°00′N9°00′E. Tunisia occupies an area of 163,610 square kilometres, of which 8,250 are water. The principal and reliable rivers rise in the north of the country with a few notable exceptions from north-east Algeria and flow through the northern plain where sufficient rainfall supports diverse plant cover and irrigated agriculture.
Mali is a landlocked nation in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria, extending south-west from the southern Sahara Desert through the Sahel to the Sudanian savanna zone. Mali's size is 1,240,192 square kilometers.
A rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall behind a mountainous region, on the side facing away from prevailing winds, known as its leeward side.
The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification.
An oceanic climate, also known as a marine climate or maritime climate, is the temperate climate sub-type in Köppen classification represented as Cfb, typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring cool to warm summers and cool to mild winters, with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature. Oceanic climates can be found in both hemispheres generally between 40 and 60 degrees latitude, with subpolar versions extending to 70 degrees latitude in some coastal areas. Other varieties of climates usually classified together with these include subtropical highland climates, represented as Cwb or Cfb, and subpolar oceanic or cold subtropical highland climates, represented as Cfc or Cwc. Subtropical highland climates occur in some mountainous parts of the subtropics or tropics, some of which have monsoon influence, while their cold variants and subpolar oceanic climates occur near polar or tundra regions.
A humid continental climate is a climatic region defined by Russo-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900, typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers, and cold and snowy winters. Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year, but often these regions do have dry seasons. The definition of this climate in terms of temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below 0 °C (32.0 °F) or −3 °C (26.6 °F) depending on the isotherm, and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). In addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid. The cooler Dfb, Dwb, and Dsb subtypes are also known as hemiboreal climates. Although amount of snowfall is not a factor used in defining the humid continental climate, snow during the winter in this type of climate is almost a guarantee, either intermittently throughout the winter months near the poleward or coastal margins, or persistently throughout the winter months elsewhere in the climate zone.
The High Atlas, also called the Grand Atlas, is a mountain range in central Morocco, North Africa, the highest part of the Atlas Mountains.
The Anti-Atlas, also known as Lesser Atlas or Little Atlas, is a mountain range in Morocco, a part of the Atlas Mountains in the northwest of Africa. The Anti-Atlas extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the southwest toward the northeast, to the heights of Ouarzazate and further east to the city of Tafilalt, altogether a distance of approximately 500 km. The range borders on the Sahara to the south.
The climate of California varies widely from hot desert to alpine tundra, depending on latitude, elevation, and proximity to the Pacific Coast. California's coastal regions, the Sierra Nevada foothills, and much of the Central Valley have a Mediterranean climate, with warmer, drier weather in summer and cooler, wetter weather in winter. The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes, creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers in coastal areas.
The wildlife of Morocco is composed of its flora and fauna. The country has a wide range of terrains and climate types and a correspondingly large diversity of plants and animals. The coastal areas have a Mediterranean climate and vegetation while inland the Atlas Mountains is forested. Further south, the borders of the Sahara Desert are increasingly arid. Large mammals are not particularly abundant in Morocco, but rodents, bats, and other small mammals are more plentiful. Four hundred and ninety species of birds have been recorded here.
The climate of Russia is formed under the influence of several determining factors. The enormous size of the country and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the continental climate, which is prevalent in European and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountains in the south obstructing the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean and the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences. Russia's climate, despite its enormous geographical extent, is generally warm to hot in the summer and cold to very cold in the winter, with snow cover typically present over the vast majority of the country's territory in the winter months, with the exception of the country's southernmost territories, the North Caucasus. Russia's far northeast, subject to an extreme subarctic climate, experiences the coldest winters of any permanently settled region in the world, with Yakutsk, the capital of the Sakha Republic, being the world's coldest major city and Oymyakon, also in the Sakha Republic, being the world's coldest permanently inhabited settlement.
The climate of Hungary is characterized by its position. Hungary is in the eastern part of Central Europe, roughly equidistant from the Equator and the North Pole, more than 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) from both and about 1,000 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean.
Turkey's climate is varied and generally temperate, with the regions bordering the Mediterranean and Black Sea heavily affected by the coasts, and the interior being drier and more continental.
The climate of Spain is highly diverse and varies considerably across the country's various regions. Spain is a very climatically diverse country, according to some sources the most varied in Europe, and has 13 different Köppen climates.